Means of intonation. Intonation and its means

There are several opinions about what intonation is and there is still a problem of defining intonation. A narrow definition of intonation belongs to a number of foreign phoneticists such as Daniel Jones, O'Conner, and others: intonation- is the variations of the pitch of the voice. These phoneticians believe that this is only the melody of the utterance, although the pitch of the main tone of the voice is really very important in intonation.

The point of view of Soviet phoneticists such as V.A. Artemov, G.P. Torsuev, V.A.Vasiliev is as follows: intonation- is a complex unity of speech melody, sentence stress, tempo, rythm and voice timbre, which enables the speaker to express his thoughts, emotions and attitudes towards the contents of the utterance. Acoustically intonation is a complex combination of varying fundamental frequency, intensity and duration. Perceptually it`s a complex of speech melody, loudness, tempo and timbre.

Most researchers believe that the main function of intonation is to convey the speaker's emotional-modal attitude to the communicated. And when they say that a sentence was pronounced "without any intonation", this means in the first case that it was said with a monotonous intonation, and in the second - that the intonation was not expressive enough.

VA Artemov believes that the main function of intonation is to express the feelings of will, without the elements of which no vital communication is conceivable. The syntax has almost no means of encoding the modal emotional-volitional function. This role is played by vocabulary and intonation.

Artemov divides the syntactic meaning of intonation into two types:

• 1. division of sentences into syntagmas corresponding to its understanding by the speaker, depending on the situation of communication.
• 2.syntactic connection of parts of a sentence - logical plans and logical modality of thought expressed in a phrase (intonation of a causal conditional connection, intonation of certainty, uncertainty, opposition, comparison, introduction of thought, etc.)

Uncertainty in the interpretation of the concept of "function" has led to the emergence of systems of classification of functions and intonation, heterogeneous in principles and contradictory in content. Various authors distinguish emotional and intellectual, verbal and vocal, logical, emphatic and accentuating, emotional, emphatic and physiological, etc. functions.

Zinder L.R. gave an interpretation of the term "linguistic function" - the function of this linguistic means should be considered "its intended purpose for the transfer of the corresponding linguistic category." In accordance with this interpretation, the following functions of intonation can be distinguished:

• 1.function of division into syntagmas
• 2.function of communication between syntagmas
• 3.function of distinguishing between communicative types (situation)
• 4.function of accent highlighting of syntagma elements
• 5.the function of expressing emotional meanings
• 6.Modal relationship transfer function

The systemic nature of the considered functions of intonation, their relative independence and interrelation is revealed:

• 1.according to their ability to form special units
• 2. by inventory and quantitative expression of those phonetic means that are mainly used in the implementation of a given functional load of intonation.

Two aspects should be distinguished in intonation: one that can be called communicative, since intonation tells whether the utterance is complete or incomplete, whether it contains a question, an answer, etc. The example discussed earlier can illustrate this aspect. Another one that could be called emotional, consists in the fact that intonation contains a certain emotion, which always reflects the emotional state of the speaker, and sometimes his intention (though not always realized by him) to influence the listener in a certain way. The latter is meant when one speaks of "emphases."

If we bear in mind the purposefulness of intonation, then we can speak, as Trubetskoy does, about its functions, but his classification of functions seems unconvincing. Trubetskoy proposes to distinguish three functions of the sound expression of speech: explicative, which coincides with what is called above communicative, appellative, which serves to influence the listener, and expressive, which makes it possible to identify the speaker's personality, his belonging to a particular social group, etc. It is hardly permissible to regard the three functions distinguished by Trubetskoy as phenomena of the same order. When, for example, we lower our voice towards the end of a sentence, then we can say that this is done precisely in order to show that we are ending it. When we say "affectionately" or "angrily", we want to show the listener our attitude towards him in connection with the content of the statement. When our speech contains signs by which it is possible to determine whether it is normative or not normative, or to find out exactly who is speaking, it is not because we want to communicate this to the interlocutors. Thus, if we talk not about aspects, but about functions, then the reflection of the emotional state of the speaker must be excluded from the expressive function.

The emotional aspect of intonation is not necessarily related to the semantic content of the utterance. Will a sentence be said Petrov returned with joy or regret, it will remain a message about the same fact of objective reality, in other words, it will have the same denotative meaning. This will not affect the syntactic structure of the sentence. Therefore, until recently, the emotional aspect was practically excluded from linguistics, and the question of its meaning, from a linguistic point of view, of its linguistic function, remains theoretically unexplored even today.

At the same time, the emotion of an utterance is undoubtedly associated with its modality, a category that is attributed great importance in modern linguistics. Indeed, each act of communication reflects not only what is being discussed (denotative aspect), but also the speaker's attitude to the message (connotative aspect).

Some studies indicate that the forms of expression of emotions, having a psychophysiological basis, in this sense are universal. Along with this, there are facts that make it obvious that intonation differs from language to language. When we listen to a foreign language speech (even with a fairly good knowledge of the corresponding language), subtle shades of meaning often escaped us, conveyed by intonation means unfamiliar to us. It is well known how difficult it is, for example, to catch a joke and or irony in a foreign language, or to express different shades of surprise, irritation, contempt, trust, distrust, etc. etc., which in most cases are conveyed only by intonation. It is also well known that the most difficult thing for foreigners to learn is intonation. Persons who flawlessly pronounce individual words of a foreign language often make mistakes in intonation, especially when it comes to more significant segments of speech. We can say that intonation is the most characteristic phonetic feature of a given language.

Thus, the exclusion of emotion from the object of the study of linguistics cannot be justified. Recently, the study of emotions began to attract the attention of researchers, mainly in phonetic terms: a number of experimental phonetic works are devoted to the intonation of emotions. A significant obstacle to such studies is the lack of a rigorous and consistent classification of emotions.

In its communicative aspect, intonation has the following meanings

• 1. Intonation is a means of dividing speech into sentences. This is especially important in reading, which nowadays plays a huge role thanks to the development of radio and television. This implies, in particular, the importance of the connection between punctuation marks in writing and intonation, studied in detail by Nikolaeva.
• 2. Intonation is involved in distinguishing between communicative types of sentences, being sometimes the only means of the so-called general question (cf. Peter goes home. Is Peter going home?). 3. The same can be said about the actual division of the proposal. So, depending on the emphasis on the logical stress of the word Peter or words home, respectively, one or another of them will denote a new ( bump), what is reported about this ( subject Consequently, in the first case, the sentence will mean that it is Peter, and not someone else, who is going home, and in the second, that he is going home and not somewhere else. 4. Only by intonation is the division into syntagmas carried out, which is determined by the meaning and is associated with the expression of one or another member of the sentence. If, for example, in a sentence: I entertained him with my brother's poems put the border of the first synthama after the word - his-, then it will be a direct complement; if you put it after the word - verses-, then the direct complement would be - my brother-. 5. Intonation marks whether a given segment of speech is a finite or non-finite syntagma (compare: He's coming home and He's coming home when the evening comes).

The examples given are enough to show the various functions of intonation, which are associated with the meaning and syntactic structure of the sentence. It should be noted that intonation as such only indirectly expresses the syntactic role of this or that word or syntagma. So, in the last example, we learn from intonation only that the first sentence does not end the utterance, but that it is the main one, it cannot be judged by it: the intonation of the first part will remain essentially unchanged if the subordinate clause is in the first place.

From the recognition of the autonomy of intonation, it follows that languages ​​should have a known set of intonation models, or, in other words, intonation should be discrete in the paradigmatic plane. This point of view is currently dominant. There is no single term for denoting an intonation unit, just as there is no generally accepted definition of it. It is called both the intonational contour, and the intonational construction, and the intonation: among American descriptivists, it is called in some cases the phoneme of the tone, in others - the final phoneme.

The number of such intonation units in different languages, of course, may not coincide, but for one language, different authors establish a different number of them. So, at Peshkovsky, you can count more than 20 such units in Russian. Bryzgunova distinguishes only 7 basic intonation structures. In general, it can be said that the question of intonation units is still not theoretically worked out, therefore there are no clear criteria for distinguishing them.

The autonomy of intonation is also related to the question of whether intonation contours are signs. Trubetskoy, answering this question in the affirmative, wrote:

"... phrase-distinguishing means ... are fundamentally different ... then all ... word-separating means. This fundamental difference lies in the fact that phonemes and word-distinguishing prosodic features are never in themselves<языковыми знаками>: they are only<часть языкового знака>... On the contrary, phrase-distinguishing means are independent signs: "warning" intonation denotes that the proposal has not yet been completed, downgrade denotes that this segment of speech is not associated with either the previous or the next, etc.

Against the point of view expressed here, the following considerations can be cited. First, the fact that this or that intonation unit, or even all of them, may be associated with a certain meaning, in itself is not yet proof of its such nature. The phoneme, which Trubetskoy contrasts in this respect with an intonation unit, can also be associated with meaning. Shcherba even considered it a sign of a phoneme. To prove this, it is enough to recall such one-phonemic words as the Russian a, y, s, k, etc. Secondly, there seems to be no reason to doubt that the same intonation contour can be used to form in Russian a declarative sentence - Peter goes home- and interrogative - When is Peter going home?- In general, I must say that if the principle is correct compensation, then the inevitability of such a situation follows from it. However, the observance of this principle must still be experimentally tested in a number of languages. Thus, the question of whether intonation means are linguistic signs, or whether they represent only a plan for expressing such a sign, remains unresolved.

Intonation consists of several components: 1) the frequency of the main tone of the voice (high-pitched or melodic component); 2) intensity (dynamic component); 3) duration or pace (temporal, temporal component); 4) pauses; 5) timbre. All components of intonation, except for a pause, are necessarily present in an utterance, because no element of it can be uttered without some kind of pitch, etc. Therefore, all components of intonation closely interact with each other. However, it is possible, firstly, to establish a certain hierarchy of them, and secondly, there is evidence of some division of functions between them.

Intonation- these are various ratios of quantitative changes in tone, timbre, intensity, duration of sound, serving to express the semantic and emotional differences of the statement (according to RG-80)

Thus, the constituent elements of intonation are:

Melody of speech,

The rhythm of speech,

Intensity of speech,

Timbre of speech,

Speech rate,

· Stress.

Melodic is a tonal contour of speech, i.e. modulation of the pitch of the main tone when pronouncing parts of a sentence, a whole sentence and over-phrasal unity. The tonal contour serves to express different semantic, syntactic and emotionally expressive meanings.

There are 4 contours of melody:

· descending melody(lowering the pitch)

· rising melody ( raising the pitch)

· ascending-descending(first rise, then decline)

· sweet melody or monochromatic(maintaining the same pitch of the main tone for a certain period of speech)

Rhythm of speech- alternation of stressed and unstressed long and short syllables. For example, in poetic and prose texts, the rhythm is different.

Intensity of speech- i.e. strength or weakness of pronunciation associated with increased or decreased exhalation. (For example, speech in the room and outside). Quantitative changes in the intensity of different sounds, and primarily vowels, are a property of intonation and, in combination with the tone of sounds, affect their loudness upon perception. Increasing the intensity of sounds with the same pitch increases their volume. On the other hand, at equal intensity, sound with a higher pitch is perceived as louder.

Speech rate- the speed of speech, the relative acceleration or deceleration of its individual segments (sounds, syllables, words, sentences and more voluminous fragments). The pace depends on the style of pronunciation, the meaning of speech, the emotional content of the statement. Fast pace- emotional speech. Average pace–Situation of information communication (lecturer's speech, business communication). Slow pace- fractional syntagmatic division, the limit of which is the coincidence of the syntagma and the word. Accordingly, the number of syntagmatic stresses increases, and individual words acquire special semantic weight. At a slow pace, solemn and important messages are pronounced.

Timbre- in intonation, a timbre is an additional coloring of the sound that communicates various emotionally expressive shades to speech. The timbre of sounds can change depending on the emotional state of the speaker (with fear in the voice, with anger, etc.) Timbre intonation means are different qualities of the voice, determined mainly by the state of the vocal cords. Allocate:

Relaxed,

Tense,

Squeaky,

Aspirated.

Stress- for intonation (as a component of intonation) of speech, verbal stress (highlighting one of the syllables in a word in the process of pronunciation) and semantic stress (syntagmatic (beat), phrasal and logical) are fundamentally significant. Often the action of stress is not only semantic, but also emotional. Along with the listed types, emphatic stress (Shcherba) is also intonationally significant.

Emphatic stress emphasizes, enhances the emotional side of the word or expresses the emotional state of the speaker. The means of expressing emphase in Russian is mainly the lengthening of the stressed vowel when expressing positive emotions (delight, admiration). Negative emotions (anger, annoyance) can be expressed by lengthening the initial consonant, as well as by emphasizing the reduction of the stressed vowel.

The main phonetic means in intonation include cessation of phonation, i.e. lack of sound (pause). Pause- this is a kind, most often not a sound intonation means. Pauses delimit syntagmas (/) and phrases (//) from each other. Interphase pauses are longer.

Each spoken phrase has a certain intonation scheme.

Int-i refers to the prosodic elements of language. It consists of:

1) from the rises and falls of the voice; This melodic speech, which has its own pattern in each language. So, in Russian, there is a slight increase in voice in the attack on a phrase, an even middle and a sharp decrease in the indentation in a narrative phrase, or a sharp increase in the indentation in an interrogative phrase ";

2) from the ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables, which in itself is a fact of tact, but within the phrase gives it rhythm .

The most loaded part of a phrase in Russian is its end, where “phrasal stress” is concentrated; the transfer of a sharp decrease (less often - an increase) from an indent to the middle of a phrase is usually called a logical stress, that is, a shifted phrasal stress;

3) from the speed or slowness of the flow of speech in time, from accelerations and decelerations, what forms pace speech;

4) from the strength or weakness of pronunciation, from the strengthening and weakening of exhalation, what forms intensity speech;

5) from the presence or absence of intraphrase pauses, which can highlight individual parts of the phrase or divide the phrase into semi-phrases (Crows sat / on an old birch tree). Internal pause is reflected in rhythmics phrases;

6) from the general timbre statements, which, depending on the target setting of the statement, can be “gloomy”, “funny”, “playful”, “frightened”, etc.

Intonation refers not to a word, but to a phrase, and thus is grammatically related to the sentence and its structure.

1) First of all, this applies to modal (conviction, question, doubt, command or personal relationship of the speaker to what he says, etc.) the form of the sentence: with the same order of the same words in many languages, interrogative sentences can be distinguished from affirmative sentences by intonation, sentences expressing doubt from sentences expressing surprise or motivation, etc. (Did he come ?; He came; He came ...; He ... came? ... etc.). These shades are expressed by the gradation of pitch, intensity and tempo.

2) The arrangement and gradation of pauses within a sentence can show the grouping of the members of the sentence or the dismemberment of the sentence, for example: Walk for a long time - could not and Walk - could not for a long time; A man - with a portfolio came and a Man with a portfolio - came. The anecdote with a “fatal” comma is based on this: Execute, you cannot have mercy, and You cannot execute, you must have mercy.

3) Pause can distinguish between simple and complex sentences; without a pause: I see a wrinkled face - a simple sentence, with pauses; I see: the face - wrinkled - complex, where a colon and a dash denote pauses, respectively.

4) Intonation can distinguish a compositional connection from a subordinate one in the absence of alliances; for example, with the intonation of the enumeration (i.e., with the repetition of the same intonation wave). The forest is chopped, the wood chips fly - an essay, and with the contrasting intonation of both halves (the first is at a high tone, the second is at a low one). The wood is chopped - the wood chips fly - submission, those wood are chopped - a subordinate clause, and the chips fly - the main thing.

5) A special phenomenon is the so-called "logical stress", that is, this or that shift of phrasal stress to emphasize any elements of the sentence; This is especially clearly revealed in the interrogative sentence, where the phrasal stress of the end of the phrase, which is normal for the Russian language (then the question refers to the whole whole), can move to the middle or the beginning of the phrase in order to show what exactly the question refers to:

Are you going to college today? (and not somewhere);

Are you going to college today? (but you won't go);

Are you going to college today? (not tomorrow);

Are you going to college today? (and not someone else).

6) Intonation, namely the acceleration of the tempo and the breaking of the normal intonation wave, distinguishes introductory words and expressions, which makes them different from the members of the sentence; for example: He is unconditionally right (without highlighting the circumstance unconditionally) and He is certainly right (with the emphasis of the introductory word unconditionally), or: He can be here (without highlighting the predicate it can be) and He maybe here (with the emphasis of the introductory words may be).

The expression of expression and, above all, various feelings (joy, anger, delight, affection, grief, etc.) is closely related to intonation, but it does not belong to the field of grammar, as well as giving certain words a special meaning, for example, ironic, that is also achieved by intonation.

The French “melodious” intonation is very indifferent to the expression of grammar (therefore, in French, you can ask and answer with the same intonation wave, but when asking you use the official interrogative particle est ce que1).

The neutral intonation of a language, a deviation from which can be used as a grammatical method, is easiest to determine on the intonation of the count (compare in Russian: one, two; one, two, three; one, two, three, four, five, six, seven ... and so on, where for any number of numerals on the first there is a rise, and on the last - a fall in intonation, while the whole middle is intoned exactly, and in French: un, deux; un, deux, trois; un, deux, trois, quatre, cing, six, sept ..., where there are ups and downs within any length of the phrase); the more “flat” and seemingly less “expressive” intonation, the easier it can be used in grammar as an expressive way; such is the Russian intonation.

INTONATION- various changes in pitch, voice volume, speech rate and intensity of pronunciation of sounds. Some parts of the sentence are pronounced louder and more expressive, while others are muffled. In certain places, a person pauses, some parts of the utterance are spoken faster, and some more slowly. Finally, the tone of speech does not remain even: it can rise and fall.

I. performs a number of functions in speech. First, it turns a combination of words or a single word into a statement that has a certain communicative purpose... Suppose you were given the task of making a sentence from a list of words: the weather will be good tomorrow... Let's say you succeed Good weather tomorrow... Will you pronounce the list of words and the statement that you made up of them in the same way? Obviously not. If the utterance is interrogative, it will be pronounced differently than in the affirmative (the tone will sharply rise on one of the words, for example, on the word good): Will the weather be good tomorrow? In exclamation sentences, I. also has its own characteristics, it differs depending on the speaker's emotions: joy ( Good weather tomorrow!) and indignation ( Tomorrow will be good!).

Secondly, with the help of I., you can highlight some fragment of the sentence... Consider the saying Karl stole corals from Clara... When we put a logical emphasis on a word Charles, this means that it is important for us to show who stole the corals from Clara (Karl, and not, let's say, Edward or someone else). If a word is highlighted Clara, then attention is focused on the victim (in Clara, and not in Rose or someone else). Or, conversely, with the help of I., one can single out the action that Karl performed: he stole, and not, for example, bought. And finally, the phrase emphasis on the last word in the sentence emphasizes that we are talking about coral, and not about a wallet or mobile phone.

Thirdly, I. expresses feelings speaker, his attitude to what or about whom he is talking. According to I., it is often possible to understand whether a person is calm or irritated, he is in high spirits or, conversely, depressed, etc.

Literary language is the highest form of the national language used in all spheres of life. ... The literary language is normalized, i.e. it regulates the vocabulary, pronunciation, word formation, the use of words, the formation of morphological forms and syntactic constructions, and spelling are subject to generally accepted rules. Phonetics is very important for the literary language. Phonetics is a branch of linguistics in which the sound side of language is studied: the sounds of human speech, methods of their formation, acoustic properties, patterns of sound change, classification of sounds, stress, features of dividing the sound stream into syllables, etc.

We will take a closer look at some of the concepts.

Alliteration (from Lat. Ad - to, with and littera - letter) is one of the methods of sound organization of speech, related to the so-called. sound repetitions and consisting in the symmetric repetition of homogeneous consonant sounds. In the narrow linguistic sense, a special, canonized method of poetic technique. In other words - one of the types of "sound repetition", which differs from other types, in particular from rhyme, in that identical repetitive sounds are localized not at the end, but at the beginning of a verse and a word, while in rhyme the ends of verses are repeated, and therefore words ; as well as the fact that the material of the repetition, that is, repetitive or corresponding sounds, are in most cases and mainly consonants. The latter circumstance gave rise to a simplified understanding of the term Alliteration as any repetition of consonants.

Since most of the languages ​​in whose poetics alliteration is canonized, in particular the Finnish and Germanic languages, have the law of initial stress (on the first syllable), the choice of alliteration as the main technique of poetry can be connected with this law. In Russian poetry, alliteration is limited to the role of an optional (not canonized) technique. It is emphasized that only some poets use it, and then, in most cases, we actually see not alliteration in the narrow sense, but only saturated cases of consonant repetitions.

Along with the concept of "alliteration", there is the concept of "alliteration verse". Let's consider this concept in more detail.

Alliterative verse is an ancient Germanic verse used in Anglo-Saxon, Old High German and Old Icelandic poetry from the 8th to the middle of the 13th century. Each of its lines had four stresses and was divided with the help of a caesura into two hemistichs, in which there were two main rhythmic stresses, and the number of unstressed syllables in the hemistichs might not coincide. The consonants that stood before the first (and sometimes before the second) main stress of the first hemistich had to be repeated (alliterated) in the second hemistich before its first main stress. Thanks to this constant repetition, alliteration in ancient Germanic verse played an organizing rhythmic role, essentially representing one of the types of initial rhyme and being one of the essential factors of its rhythmic construction. Subsequently, the alliterative verse is supplanted by a verse with a final rhyme.

The simplest type of alliteration is onomatopoeia, but in its pure form it is not used so often and usually acts only as the primary basis for further sound associations (cf. Pushkin's "The hiss of frothy glasses And punch blue flame").

Onomatopoeia are unchangeable words that, with their sound composition, reproduce sounds emitted by humans, animals, objects, as well as various natural phenomena accompanied by sounds.

In Russian, there is a large group of words denoting sounds that are produced by animals: meow, woof-woof, kva-kva, chik-chirik. Other words convey non-verbal sounds produced by a person: khe-khe, smack, ha-ha-ha, as well as various other sounds of the surrounding world: boo, drip-drip, crap, bang-bang. Onomatopoeia usually consists of one syllable, which is often repeated (Bul-bul, puff-puff), often with changes in the second part (bang-bang, tick-tock).

Grammatically, onomatopoeia are close to interjections. However, in contrast to them, they are less "attached" to intonation.

But the importance of onomatopoeia should not be exaggerated. Moreover, this term is not very apt: after all, the sounds of speech cannot directly "imitate" the diverse noises of nature, not to mention technology. Therefore, onomatopoeia in poetry is of limited importance.

The concept of onomatopoeia is closely related to the concept of sound writing. In versification, four main methods are divided: repetition of sound, repetition of phonetically close sounds, opposition of phonetically contrasting sounds, different organization of sequences of sounds and intonational unity.

In literature, the techniques of sound writing can be both canonized and individual.

The next concept of interest to us is assonance.

Assonance (French assonance from Lat. Assono - I respond) is one of the forms of sound organization of speech related to the so-called. sound repetitions and consisting in the symmetric repetition of homogeneous vowels.

Unlike complete identity, absolute agreement, called consonance, means only a partial coincidence of forms. For example, the incomplete symmetry of the elements of the ornament, following not a metric, but a rhythmic scheme. Such assonance gives the impression of a rhythmic shift, visual movement, even a failure, which brings special tension to the composition. In more complex images, assonant harmony allows you to build "visual rhymes", assimilation of forms or individual parts of an image to a format, responses from one part of an image to another, although they may not coincide in nature and meaning. The opposite meaning is dissonance.

An inaccurate rhyme is also called assonance, in which only a few, mainly vowel sounds under stress are consonant: "beautiful - inextinguishable", "thirst - sorry", etc.

Rhyme plays a huge rhythm-forming and compositional role in poetry. Rhyme is a sound repetition, which usually has a place at the end of two or more lines (sometimes internal rhymes are also created).

In Russian classical versification, the main feature of rhyme is the coincidence of stressed vowels. The rhyme marks the end of the verse (clause) with a sound repetition, emphasizing the interlinear pause, and thus the rhythm of the verse.

Depending on the location of the stress in rhyming words, rhymes are: male - with stress on the last syllable of the line ("window-long ago"), female - with stress on the second syllable from the end of the line ("gift-fire"), dactylic - with stress on the third syllable from the end of the line ("spreads-spills"), hyperdactylic - with stress on the fourth and subsequent syllables from the end ("hanging-mixing").

According to their location in the lines, rhymes are divided into paired, or adjacent, connecting adjacent lines (according to the scheme aa, bb); cross, in which the first and third, second and fourth are consonant (according to the abab scheme); enveloping or belted, in which the first and fourth, second and third lines rhyme (according to the abba scheme).

Depending on the coincidence of sounds, rhymes are distinguished between exact and imprecise. An accurate rhyme occurs when the vowels and consonants that are included in the consonant endings of the verses are basically the same. The accuracy of rhyme also increases from the consonance of consonants immediately preceding the last stressed vowel in rhyming verses. Inaccurate rhyme is based on the consonance of one, less often - two sounds.

This can be proved if we recall Dunno, who argued that "a stick is a herring" is a rhyme. It seems that the sounds at the end of words coincide ... But in fact, it is not sounds that rhyme, but phonemes that have a number of distinctive features. And the coincidence of some of these features is enough to make a rhyme sound possible. The fewer coinciding signs of a phoneme, the more distant and "worse" the consonance.

Consonant phonemes differ: by the place of education, by the method of formation, by the participation of voice and noise, by hardness and softness, by deafness and sonority. These signs are obviously unequal. So, the phoneme P coincides with the phoneme B in all signs, except for deafness-voicedness (P - voiceless, B - voiced). This distinction creates a rhyme that is "almost" accurate. Phonemes P and T differ in the place of formation (labial and front-lingual) - they are also perceived as rhyme sounds, albeit more distant. The first three features create more significant differences in phonemes than the last two. You can designate the difference between phonemes in the first three signs, as two conventional units; for the last two - as one. Phonemes differing by 1-2 conventional units are consonant. Differences by 3 or more units to our ear do not hold the consonance. For example: P and G differ by three conventional units (place of education - by 2, deafness-voiced - by 1). And okoPy - legs can hardly be considered rhyme in our time. Even less - trenches - ros, where P and Z differ by 4 conventional units (place of formation, method of formation). So, let's note the rows of consonant consonants. These are, first of all, pairs of hard and soft: T - T ", K - K", C - C ", etc., but such substitutions are used quite rarely, so of the three pairs of rhymes" oblique "e - poCy "," BOTTOMS - ROSES "and" BOTTOMS - ROSES "are more preferable to the second and third options. Substitution of deaf-voiced voices is perhaps the most common: P-B, T-D, K-G, S-Z, Sh-Zh, F-V (for God - deep, bend - lipah, dragonfly - scythes, people - nap ). Stopping (method of education) P-T-K (deaf) and B-D-G (voiced) respond well to each other. The corresponding two rows of fricatives are Ф-С-Ш-Х (voiceless) and В-З-Ж (voiced). X does not have a sonorous analogue, but it goes well and often goes well with K. B-V and B-M are equivalent. Very productive M-N-L-R in various combinations. Soft versions of the latter are often combined with J and B (Russia [RossiJi] - blue - strength - beautiful).

Another integral component of any piece is rhythm. Rhythm (Greek rhythmós, from rhéo - flow) is the perceived form of the flow of any processes in time, the basic principle of the shaping of temporary arts (poetry, music, dance, etc.). This concept is applicable to the spatial arts insofar as they imply a process of perception unfolding in time. The variety of manifestations of rhythm in various types and styles of art, as well as outside the artistic sphere, has given rise to many different definitions of rhythm, and therefore the word "rhythm" does not have a terminological clarity.

In the broadest sense, rhythm is the temporal structure of any perceived processes, formed by accents, pauses, division into segments, their grouping, ratios in duration, etc. coinciding with the semantic division, graphically expressed by punctuation marks and spaces between words.

There is a concept: poetic rhythm - the repetition of homogeneous sound features in poetic speech. In various systems of versification, the bases of the rhythm of the poetic are different: a measured alternation of long and short syllables (metric versification), a strict number of syllables (syllabic versification). Syllabo-tonic versification in German, English and Russian poetry is based on the correlation of verses by the even placement of stressed syllables (for example, stress only on even syllables or only on odd ones or in another order - with unstressed intervals not in one, but in two syllables).

Not a single piece can do without intonation.

Intonation (from Latin intono - I pronounce loudly) is a set of prosodic characteristics of a sentence: tone, voice quality, loudness, etc.

This term has two meanings. In a more precise sense, intonation is understood as a system of changes in the relative pitch in a syllable, word, and the whole utterance (phrase). One of the most important functions of the intonation of a whole phrase is to determine the completeness or incompleteness of the statement; namely, the completeness of intonation separates a phrase, a complete expression of a thought from a part of a sentence, from a group of words. Wed I. the first two words in the phrases: "Where are you going?" and "Where are you going?" Of course, a single word or even a single syllable can be the bearer of this I. Wed "Yes?" - "Yes". Another equally important function of the intonation of a whole phrase is to determine the modality of the statement - to distinguish between narrative, question and exclamation.

Narrative or indicative intonation is characterized by a noticeable decrease in the tone of the last syllable, which is preceded by a slight increase in tone on one of the previous syllables. The highest tone is called the intonation peak, the lowest is called the intonation decrease. In a simple, uncomplicated narrative phrase, there is usually one intonation peak and one intonation decrease. Where the narrative intonation combines a more complex complex of words or phrases, individual parts of the latter can be characterized by either an increase or a partial decrease in intonation (especially often a decrease in intonation is observed in enumerations), but less low than the end of a phrase. In such cases, the narrative phrase can contain either multiple peaks and one final decline, or several lows that are less low than the final one.

Interrogative intonation is of two main types: a) in those cases where the question concerns the entire utterance, there is an increase in tone on the last syllable of the interrogative phrase, stronger than the increase in voice noted above in the narrative phrase (the latter, being cut off on the rise, creates the impression of incompleteness statements, which is not after increasing interrogative intonation); b) interrogative intonation is characterized by a particularly high pronunciation of the word to which the question mainly relates. Of course, the rest of its intonation pattern depends on the position of this word at the beginning, end or middle of the phrase.

In the exclamation intonation, it is necessary to distinguish: a) the actual exclamation intonation, characterized by a higher pronunciation of the most important word than in a narration, but lower than in a question; b) incentive intonation with numerous gradations, from requests and motives to decisive orders; the intonation of the latter is characterized by a decrease in tone, close to the narrative intonation. These types of intonation are sometimes combined by researchers into the concept of logical intonations. And finally, the third, no less important function of intonation is the connection and separation of syntagmas - words and phrases - members of a complex whole. For example, the intonation of the phrases: "The sleeve was stained all over with blood", "The sleeve was stained all over with blood" and "The sleeve was all stained with blood". However, as is clear from this example, a change in intonation, expressing a change in the syntactic form of a phrase, is closely connected here with a change in rhythmic relations, in particular with the distribution of pauses.

Intonation is a non-linear (super-segmental) phonetic unit. It cannot be separated from the sounding speech, since the formation of sounds and intonation is a single articulatory-acoustic process. The main component of intonation, which determines its essence, is the high-altitude changes in the fundamental tone, which is formed as a result of oscillations of the vocal cords, the tone movement can be even, it can increase, decrease.

In a broader sense, the term intonation is used for a general designation of melodic-rhythmic-power means of speech expressiveness.

Intonation is of great importance in artistic prose and poetic speech, especially in lyrics. Although a poetic work can be pronounced with some variations, there is an objective intonational basis inherent in the text, fixed in its rhythmic and intonational properties.

The intonation in verse is one of the essential factors of melody. Its peculiarity, in comparison with prosaic intonation, is, first of all, that it has a regulated character, decreasing towards the end of each verse segment (line) and reinforced by a final verse pause. At the same time, the decrease in intonation is already determined by the rhythm of the verse, and not by the meaning of the sentences contained in it (often coinciding with it), due to which it decreases regardless of the conditions necessary for this in prose. Against the background of this aligned intonation, which enhances the rhythmic movement of the verse, it becomes possible to vary various degrees of intonation (depending on the final verse and stanza pauses, clauses, etc.).

Among other things, intonation includes: timbre, tempo, rhythm of speech, pause, stress. Intonation is the most important sign of sounding speech, it serves to form any word or phrase, as well as to express semantic and emotional differences in statements.

Pause (lat. Pausa - termination) - a break, a stop in a sounding speech.

The location of physiological pauses in the speech stream may not coincide with the established division of speech into words and even into sentences. On the one hand, pauses are usually absent between groups of closely related words ("I walked like this from day to day" - there are no pauses between words connected by hyphens), on the other hand, when words are stressed emphatically, a pause is made in the middle words ("this is at || zha`sno!"). However, for the syntactic and semantic division of the speech stream, only those pauses that coincide with the boundaries of words and sentences are important. Pauses of this type - in combination with differences in intonation - convey in the spoken speech very subtle differences in semantic relations between the parts of the composed non-union sentence and the members of the sentence. Differences in sentences such as: "come home, go to bed" (with the relation of a conditional or temporary connection between sentences) and "come home, go to bed" (with a simple sequence of unrelated sentences); or differences in connection between members of a sentence such as: "the handkerchief was || stained, || with blood" and "the handkerchief was || stained with blood".

Pauses in poetry are especially important. A pause in a verse is a certain amount of time not filled with phonemes, and we call such a pause a temporary pause, in contrast to an intonational pause, which has a specially logical character, and from a subjective pause, which we always hear under strong stress, even if it is in reality and was not. Any inter-verbal break (word division, sloor) is a pause, for the most part extremely insignificant (excluding word complexes pronounced, so to speak, with one spirit, like "I went", "to heaven", etc., where enclitic phenomenon). The role of such pauses, in itself, is very insignificant, and these pauses are distinguished by shock phenomena. Rhythmically active in a particular verse are the final, non-rhyme pauses, which intensifies the rhyme stress, and the so-called main caesura, which is a pause after the strongest stress in the line (colonial stress); in the "iambic pentameter" the caesura is easily traceable precisely in the event that there is an emphasis in front of it; once this stress is obscured by a semi-stress (acceleration, pyrrhic), it almost disappears, turning into a colonic intonation pause after the strong stress of the first word (the word is thus broken by a pause, which is usually absent in its pure form and is replaced by the lengthening of the previous word). A special kind of rhythmic verse matter is pauses in place of omitted syllables, which are extremely frequent in our triplets. These pauses can replace - one unstressed, two unstressed, shock (tribrachoid pause) and, finally, a whole foot. Their role is again reduced to the strengthening of the previous stresses with the inevitable weakening of the subsequent ones and to the identification of the dipodic beginning in the three-part verse. The dipodia is so strengthened in such a case that a number of translators (from Serbian, where such a verse is very common), as well as some researchers of the Pushkin pause trehdolnik, came to the conclusion that they were dealing with a dicotyledon (in Pushkin - "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish "," Songs of the Western Slavs ", etc.). Intonationally we get:

And the head ... wushka ---- beztalan ... naya,

where a series of dashes denotes a pause of two moors in place of the stressed word, ellipsis: intonation breaks filled with the length of the stressed word after the stress, which, after the disappearance of the middle stress, become dipodic. The pauses are closely associated with the accumulation of unnecessary syllables (triplets in dicotyledon, quartoles and quintoli in triplets), which can be considered as a pause of an extra foot against a meter. The constriction among the Greeks corresponds to our pause: the replacement of dactyl in the hexameter with chorea is read as a pause, while the Greeks distinguished between a pause and a contraction (one must bear in mind the difference between our chorea and the Greek irrational spondeus in this case). The pause is still with Lomonosov and Sumarokov, in special things they are with Pushkin and Lermontov, often with Fet, from whom they switched to the Symbolists and became commonplace with the newest authors. Popular versification has been using them for centuries, and now they are often found in ditties. The Kantemirov syllabic is also a kind of paused verse.

A hyphenation in a verse is a discrepancy between the semantic and rhythmic structure of a line or stanza, when a sentence does not fit into a poetic line and occupies part of the next line (line hyphenation), or the sentence does not fit within the boundaries of the stanza and goes to the next stanza (stanza hyphenation).

Stress is a way of forming a phonetically integral segment of an utterance.

In Russian, a distinction is made between verbal, phrasal and syntagmatic. Verbal stress in Russian is free (that is, it can be on any syllable of a word) and mobile (that is, not tied to a specific morpheme in a word. Usually there is one stress in a word, however, in long and complex words, in addition to the main stress, there is also a secondary stress (four-story, avalanche).

Table No. 7

Congenital and nationally-specific signs of emotional expressiveness acquired on their basis	Phonetic forms of language signs
Infant screams of varying volume and their derived vocal responses of moderate conversational intensity	Dynamic units of logical allocation of units of text (topic-rematic division)
Humming reactions and signs of emotional expressiveness derived from them - vocalizations	Stressed and unstressed vowels
Babbling reactions and signs of emotional expressiveness derived from them - segments of ascending sonority	Syllables of the open type SG, differing in the sum of signs of syllabic contrast
Fluffy pseudowords	Syllabic rhythmic structures of phonetic words
Late melodic babble	Melodic constructions of communicative types of syntagmas: declarative, interrogative, exclamatory and incomplete

The minimum significant unit of intonation of a phrase is prosodem.

Acoustic components that convey the melody are called melody.

Acoustic timing components are called timekeeping.

The components that convey intensity and expression are called accented.

A more complex unit of utterances that determines different communicative functions is intonem. The intonme includes different prosodems to express different semantic shades of speech.

Melodems convey syntactic meaning.

Tempo chronomes emphasize oppositions in speech. Pausal chronomes are used to explain something, a belief in something.

Intonation- the main component of prosody. Intonation includes several acoustic components: tone of voice, its timbre, intensity, or strength of the voice, melody, pauses, verbal logical stress, speech tempo. These acoustic characteristics of intonation depend on the frequency and amplitude of vibrations of the vocal cords, on the degree of muscular tension of the speech organs, on the different speed of articulation change, on the emotional tone.

Intonation increases the volume of the message, communicating not only what is in the text, but also what is in the subtext. The anatomical and physiological nature of intonation is made up of speech movements, which are based on modulations of the pharyngeal tube, which affect the power of sound speech (Zhinkin).

Intonation clarifies the semantic aspect of speech, reveals its emotional content and has a strong impact on the listener. Intonation organizes the semantic side of speech with the help of logical intonations - narration, enumeration, emphasizing stressed words, changing the tempo of speech.

The perception of intonation is noted in children earlier than reproduction. This is due to the fact that the intonation field of the speech-auditory analyzer (perception of intonation) ends its formation by the end of the babbling period, while the formation of the intonation field in the speech-motor analyzer (reproduction of intonation) ends only during the formation of oral speech.

The classification of types of intonation was proposed by A.K. Cellitis and identified the following:

1. Intellectual

2. Voluntative

a) narrative

b) incentive

3. Emotive

4. Fine

The meaning of intellectual types of intonation is reflected in the language moments of mental activity associated with the generation of utterances: an assertion (transmission of information) or a question (expression of a desire to receive information).

The voluntary meanings of intonation are related to the sphere of human speech activity. There are two groups of voluntary intonation:

a) narrative - the intonation of a statement in statements of a fact or judgment, but not expressing intonationally the will or emotional state of the speaker; intonation of advice, but without being forced to follow it;

b) incentive types of intonation: intonation of the order; intonation of the request.

Emotive intonation is the expression of emotions by intonation means: anger, fear, tenderness, sadness, indifference, shame, surprise.

The pictorial types of intonation are used to reproduce the physical properties of a phenomenon, an object. The semantics of these types of intonation is associated with such mental processes as perception, sensation, imagination. For example, to communicate something big, a low voice range is used, i.e. low frequencies and a slow tempo, and the high range of the voice is used to characterize something small.

Melodic is the main component of intonation and provides raising and lowering the tone of the voice. Phonetic melody, combined with stress and pauses, forms the semantic relationship between parts of the phrase. Russian speech is characterized by four types of melody in the direction of the tone movement: descending melody, ascending melody, ascending-descending melody, even melody.

Melody determines the communicative type of the sentence. There are three types of melodies:

1. Narrative melody of speech, which is characterized by a lowering of the voice on the last stressed syllable.

2. Interrogative melody of speech, which is characterized by an increase in the tone of voice on the word that serves as the semantic center (key word) of the question.

3. The exclamation melody of speech indicates the emotional motivation that accompanies the speaker's speech.

Intonation includes stress. IN the emphasis is based on the intensity, the strength of the sound. Acoustically, stress is expressed by intensity, duration, increase or decrease of the main tone. Allocate verbal, syntagmatic, phrasal and logical stress.

Under verbal stress mean the top of the word.

Syntagmatic stress serves to highlight the most informative, most communicatively important word in the syntagma and the sentence. Syntagmatic stress is the semantic center. The main word of the syntagma is pronounced with a longer duration and greater intensity than the rest of the words.

Phrasal stress transmitted by the rise or fall of the entire contour of the sentence, expresses the completeness of the utterance.

To emphasize the semantic side of the statement, apply logical stress. Logical stress is realized by highlighting the most important word among other words in order to give the sentence a more precise meaning. Semantic stress is recognized as logical if it is accentuated as much as possible, clearly distinguished by intonation strength and a significant interval of pitch in comparison with ordinary verbal stress. Logical stress is an enhanced accentuated verbal stress, which is achieved by increasing the tension of the stressed syllable articulation. Thus, the specificity of logical stress is in special semantics and in the extent to which the accentuated word is emphasized.

Intonation depends on change tone of voice in height, i.e. from modulations. The tone of the voice is formed when air passes through the pharynx, vocal folds of the mouth and nose.

Additional coloration of the voice is called timbre vote. The tone of voice can be common for many people, while the tone of voice is individual and depends on the activity of the oronosopharyngeal resonator, its structure and functions.

Sounding speech depends on the nature of speech breathing: voice, sound pronunciation and the entire prosodic side of speech.

One of the strongest prosodic tools is pauses, those. stops in speech. Pauses can be valid or null. Actual pauses are breaks in the sound, and with zero pauses, there are no breaks in the sound, but the melody changes. More often this kind of pause appears at the junction between syntagmas (L.R. Zinder).

Intonation includes rate of speech. Tempo is the rate of speech. For normal colloquial speech, pronunciation of 5-6 syllables per second is characteristic. Tempo plays a significant role in conveying the emotional side of an utterance. The deviation of the tempo from the average values ​​(acceleration or deceleration) interferes with the perception of the semantic side of the statement, because the pronunciation side of speech is sharply deteriorating.

The rate of speech chosen by a person determines such a component of prosody as rhythm. Rhythm is defined as a sequential alternation of elements of speech that have a semantic or expressive meaning, the alternation is carried out after certain periods of time. The rhythm of speech is the sound organization of speech by alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. Stressed syllables and words are pronounced for a longer time. This is accompanied by pronounced changes in the pitch of the voice. Tempo and rhythm are in a complex relationship and interdependence. There are a number of rhythm components. The main property of speech rhythm is regularity.