(IX – first half of the 15th centuries)

Most researchers believe that the ancestral home of the early Slavs was the lands from the Oder River in the west to the Carpathian Mountains in the east. From this territory, Slavic tribes in the first half of the 1st millennium began settling in the middle and upper reaches of the Dnieper, as well as to the north - to the area of ​​​​Lake Ilmen. This part of the Slavs was called eastern. In the 9th century as a result of the decomposition of the tribal system based on social
noi, professional and property differentiation and the formation
formation of large territorial-political associations (tribal
unions, city regions) Eastern Slavs
came close to creating their own statehood. Center-
The cities of Kyiv and Nov-
city. Their political unification was carried out by Prince Oleg in 882. Advantageously located on the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” these cities
rallied around themselves two groups of East Slavic tribes - the
true and southern.

There is no consensus in science regarding the origin of the word “Rus” . In The Tale of Bygone Years, the chronicler either identifies this concept with the Slavs, or considers it “newcomer,” which correlates with the Scandinavians. But at the same time, in Scandinavia itself there has never been a people named “Rus”. There are several hypotheses about the origin of this ethnonym name.

· The term “Rus” is associated with the Finno-Ugric name of its neighbors - the Swedes and Norwegians - “ruotsi”, which in turn goes back to the Old Scandinavian meaning “roths” - “oarsmen”.

· Under the name “ros” stands the most ancient Slavic early state formation of the 6th-7th centuries. around Kyiv, and identify it with the name of the right tributary of the Dnieper - the Ros River.

· The name “Rus” - “ros” originates from Byzantine chronicles, which mention “the Scythian people grew”, as well as from the ancient toponymy of the Azov region and Crimea, where names with the root “ros” are often found.

· Perhaps “Rus” was the name given to the mercenary detachments of warrior-combatants of the first Russian princes, consisting mainly of Varangians.

At present, the most promising point of view seems to be that “Rus” is not the name of any people - this concept is not only ethnic, but also social. This is what they called in the north the Varangian prince-kings and their diverse warriors-oarsmen, who consisted of Slavs, Scandinavians, and Celts. In this sense, this concept came to the Slavs, where it designated the international environment of the servants and warriors of the first princes, and later the name “Rus” spread to the lands subject to the princes and their squad.

The chronicle evidence from the Tale of Bygone Years about the calling of the Varangians to Rus' was used by those invited to Russia in the 18th century. German scientists G. Bayer, G. Miller
and A. Schlözer to create the so-called “Norman theory” of the emergence of the Old Russian state. This theory substantiated the initial inability of the Slavs for self-government and state organization, and thereby justified foreign (German) power (Bironovschina, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Brunswick and Holstein rulers, Catherine II). WITH
Since then, disputes between “Normanists” and “anti-Normanists” have not subsided.
mi", the first of which was the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov.

Ancient Rus' was an early feudal monarchy. In
The head of state was the prince, who relied on the senior and junior squads. From the senior squad was formed council of boyars. People's assemblies met in individual lands - veche.

The Old Russian state reached its heyday during the reign of Vladimir I Svyatoslavich (980-1015) and Yaroslav
Wise (1019-1054). Under Vladimir I, Rus' adopted Christianity, under Yaroslav the Wise the first written laws “Russian Truth” were drawn up, and Kyiv became one of the richest cities.
births of Europe and competed not only with Western European capitals
mi, but also with Constantinople. In 1036 the Kiev metropolis was formed, in 1037 the Kiev Cathedral of St. Sophia was built. Many European states sought kinship with the Russian grand ducal house. At this time, ancient Russian law was codified - “Russian Truth” was created - an ancient code of laws of Rus', which defined various forms of dependence of the population and prohibited blood feud.

Since the 30s. XII century In Rus', a period of political fragmentation began, which lasted until the end of the 15th century, which became a natural consequence of the evolution of feudal relations. The most important reasons for the collapse of the unity of the Old Russian state were associated with:

· complex, not legally formalized order of succession to the throne;

·
the relative political independence of local principalities;

·
the weakness of economic ties between Kiev and the territories formally subordinate to it;

· Kiev’s loss of significance as a transit trade center on the way “from
Varangians and Greeks”, etc.

In the second half of the 13th century. The Old Russian state consisted of a number of independent principalities and lands. The largest of them were the Novgorod-Pskov land, South-Western Rus' (the Principality of Galicia-Volyn) and the North-Eastern lands (the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal). Their isolation intensified as a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquest.

The invasion of German and Swedish invaders into the western and northwestern borders of Russian lands, the Mongol-Tatar conquest of Rus' and the Golden Horde yoke led to a long economic,
the political and cultural decline of the Russian lands, which lasted until the beginning of the 14th century.

Only in the 14th century. a persistent tendency towards the rise of Mo-
skva and the gathering of other Russian lands around it thanks to the activities of the Moscow princes: Ivan Kalita, Simeon the Proud, Ivan the Red, Dmitry Donskoy and Vasily the Dark, who gained the favor of the Golden Horde, as well as support and co-
the action of the boyars and the Orthodox clergy.

Option I.Ancient Rus': main stages of development

Questions for topic II(1)

1. The Old Russian state in the 9th – early 13th centuries: formation, main stages of development, causes and consequences of the political collapse of Ancient Rus'.

2. Development of Russian principalities and territories in the second half of the XIII - first half of the XV centuries.

Guidelines

1. Upon review first question It should be taken into account that the formation of a state is a complex process due to many socio-economic and political reasons. Therefore, any date for the formation of a state is largely arbitrary. Please note that Ancient Rus' was territorially formed around the trade route from the “Varangians to the Greeks,” which was at that time the main trade artery of Europe and the economic core of the united Rus'. Highlight the periods into which the history of the Old Russian state is divided.

Regarding the question
"Norman theory", it should be noted that it is part
complex “Norman problem”, which includes questions of the origins of ancient Russian statehood and the actual history of the activities of specific
historical figures.

First of all, find out what features the process of state formation had under the first Rurikovichs and how these features influenced their domestic and foreign policies. What was the political system of the state? What categories made up the prince's squad? What was the social structure of society (free and dependent categories of the population)? What's happened polyudye? (See Appendices. Tables 1, 2).

Practical task: Make a genealogical diagram of the Old Russian rulers from Rurik of Varangia (862–879) to Mstislav the Great (1125–1132) and highlight the most important events that occurred during the reign of each of the Old Russian princes.

Considering the activities of the first Kyiv princes, highlight the most significant events of the reign of Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav and Vladimir I. Try to understand the main directions of Russian foreign policy. Explain what determined the differences between military campaigns against the nomads and Khazars, on the one hand, and campaigns against Byzantium, on the other.

The most important event in ancient Russian history was the adoption of Christianity. Think:

· What was the significance of the baptism of Rus'? What were the reasons for accepting
Christianity?

· What role did Byzantium and Bulgaria play in this?

· Why in Rus'
Was Christianity adopted according to the Greek model?

· What was the importance of the ethical side of the Christian religion?

Think about the problem of the historical significance of Russia's adoption of Christianity. Was there
forced baptism of Rus'? (See Appendices. Table 3).

The activities of the great Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) contributed to the flourishing of the Old Russian state and the strengthening of its international status. Give a description of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. Determine the significance of the adoption of the first written law - Russian Pravda.

The collapse of the Old Russian state into independent principalities and lands was due to both objective processes of the development of feudal relations and subjective factors associated with the specific political actions of Russian princes. Reveal the reasons for the princely fragmentation of Ancient Rus'.

· Highlight the main stages of the formation of Appanage Rus'.

· Consider the order of succession to the throne that was established in the Old Russian state during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. Why was this order called “ladder”?

Please note that by the 12th century. A new geopolitical situation emerged in Rus', called “Apartment Rus'”. What does this definition imply?

In an effort to prevent inter-princely strife and bloody clashes, the princes gathered in 1097 for a congress in the city of Lyubech on the Dnieper. It was decided to assign “fatherlands” to the princes - their principalities - and prohibit movements from “table” to “table”. One of the initiators of convening this congress was the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh(in Greek “combatant”). (Appendix 3). Was Monomakh able to stop the political collapse of the state? Who was the last great Kiev prince who supported the nominal unity of Rus'?

Find out into which principalities the once united Kievan Rus fell apart. Give characteristics and determine the specifics of the development of such specific territories as the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the Galician-Volyn Land, the Novgorod Boyar Republic according to the following indicators:

· geographical location;

· characteristic features of socio-economic development;

· features of the political system;

· relationships between princely power and boyars;

· ruling princely dynasties;

· the fate of Russian lands during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. .

What factors contributed to the formation of strong princely power in the Vladimir-Suzdal land?

Which Rurik princes ruled in the Volyn and Galician lands? When did Daniil Romanovich complete the unification of Galician-Volyn Rus? What wars and with whom did he fight? When did Daniil Galitsky take the royal title?

Pay attention to the features of the evolution of Novgorod lands. When and why did the Novgorod Republic begin to form, what role did the Novgorod boyars play?

Analyze the system of political structure of Veliky Novgorod. What was the veche government, what circumstances and conditions limited the princely power, what functions were performed mayor, thousand, archbishop? Why did contemporaries call Veliky Novgorod “master”

Problem tasks

1. There is an opinion that the main reason for Rus''s transition to political fragmentation lies in the shortcomings of the ladder (sequential) order of succession to the throne and the numerical growth of the grand ducal house. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your position.

2. “.... had 12 sons, and not from one wife: they had different mothers. The eldest son was Vysheslav, after him - Izyaslav, the third - Svyatopolk, who planned the evil murder. His mother, Greek, was formerly a nun. Brother... Yaropolk, seduced by the beauty of her face, undressed her and took her as his wife, and conceived the accursed Svyatopolk from her. .... while still a pagan, having killed Yaropolk, he took possession of his pregnant wife. So she gave birth to this accursed Svyatopolk, the son of two fathers and brothers. That's why he didn't love him..., because he didn't come from him. And from Rogneda... he had four sons: Izyaslav and Mstislav, and Yaroslav, and Vsevolod. From another wife there were Svyatoslav and Mstislav, and from a Bulgarian wife - Boris and Gleb.”

What great prince are we talking about in this passage? Say his name.

2. During analysis second question, Please note that the second half of the XIII - first half of the XV centuries. - the period of the Golden Horde yoke. This is a time of both the most difficult trials for Rus' and the accumulation of internal potential for the subsequent unification of Russian lands. Please note that North-Eastern Rus' was most subject to devastation by the Mongol-Tatars. According to calculations by V.L. Egorov, a specialist in the history of the Golden Horde, for the period from the 30s. XIII century until the middle of the 14th century. More than twenty military attacks by Golden Horde detachments of various sizes were carried out on the lands of North-Eastern and South-Western Rus'.

Find out:

· how the economic revival of the Russian principalities proceeded;

· what processes took place in the social and political fields;

· what factors contributed to the unification of Russian lands.

The process of the rise of Moscow and the unification of other Russian lands around it was complex and multifaceted, taking place in intense competition with
other principalities, primarily Tver, Nizhny Novgorod
and Ryazansky.

Practical task: Construct a genealogical diagram of the reign of the dynasty of Moscow princes from Daniil of Moscow to Vasily II the Dark and highlight the most important events that occurred during the reign of the Moscow princes.

Problem task

After a long struggle, Moscow becomes the capital of the new Rus' - Russia. At the same time, some believe that it became the center of the state due to its geographical position: at the crossroads, in the center of the Russian land. But were Tver, Uglich, Kostroma in a less advantageous geographical position? Others believe that the church helped Moscow become a center - in 1326 the Metropolitan moved there from Vladimir. Then why didn’t Vladimir become the center when the Metropolitan was there? Still others argue that Moscow proved its right to be a capital city with its wealth and culture. But, according to historians, at the beginning of the 14th century. the most cultivated lands were Rostov-Suzdal, and the richest was the Novgorod Republic. Still others give preference to Moscow as the most powerful principality. However, it is known that it would be more correct to call Tverskoye as such. And with all this palette, it would seem, not in favor of Moscow, this principality becomes the center of unification. Why? Give reasons for your position.

Try to review the activities of the first Moscow princes in chronological order and identify general trends and specifics of their reign.

Think about why the Principality of Moscow was rejected by Ivan’s pro-Horde policies
Kalita switched to active military resistance under Dmitry Donskoy. What was the significance of the Battle of Kulikovo for the further unification of Russian lands?

Describe the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century. between the heirs of the Moscow throne. What was the essence of the conflict? What is its significance for strengthening the role of Moscow as a center for gathering Russian lands? (Appendix 8).

Consider the development of Novgorod under the Mongol-Tatar yoke. What kind of relations did Novgorod have with its closest neighbors? What are the reasons for the fall of the Novgorod Republic?

When studying the history of the development of the southern and western Russian lands, keep in mind that an important distinguishing feature of this region was the presence of a powerful boyars that successfully competed with the power of the princes
and hindered the consolidation of these territories.

One of the factors in the rapprochement of the Russian southern and western principalities in the 13th–14th centuries. with the Principality of Lithuania was the desire of the Russian population of these lands to free themselves from the influence of the Golden Horde, as well as the specifics of the state order of the Principality of Lithuania, which granted fairly broad autonomy to its regions. An essential feature of Lit-
you were the early development of civil law institutions and class bodies
representative power. Already at the beginning of the 15th century. the power of the great princes became stronger
born, and the decisive role in the state gradually passed to the gentry aristocracy
hundredcracy.

Try to highlight the following issues:

· the nature of interaction between Russian and Lithuanian lands. How was it expressed?
cultural and political influence of Russian principalities;

· reasons for the reorientation of the great Lithuanian princes to Poland;

· what role did the religious question and the problem of the fight against the crusaders play in this process;

What were the relations between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia?
with North-Eastern Russia, Novgorod, the Golden Horde?

Problem task:

IN. Klyuchevsky emphasized not only the evil, but also the good of the Mongol invasion: “First of all, the Tatars began to relate to the Rus' they had enslaved, which eliminated or alleviated many of the difficulties that the North Russian princes created for themselves and their country... If they had been completely left to themselves, they would have torn their Rus' apart into incoherent, eternally warring appanages nooks... The thunderstorm of the khan's wrath restrained the bullies..." Do you agree with this statement?

Option 2. The struggle of Russian lands with external expansion in the XIII - early XV centuries

One of the most important consequences of the political fragmentation of Rus' and the formation of appanage Rus' was the reduction in the military potential of independent principalities and lands, the lack of princely interest in the mutual protection of common Russian borders.

In the 30-40s. XIII century Russian lands, weakened by internecine wars and fragmentation, became the object of external aggression: from the East - the Mongol-Tatar invasion, from the West - the invasion of the Crusaders, Swedish and Danish knights. The coincidental invasions had disastrous consequences for the development of Rus'.

The first detachments of crusaders, who sought to establish their influence in the lands of Eastern Europe and the Baltic states, appeared on the borders of Western Russian lands at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries.

The aggressive intentions of the knightly orders were directed by the Roman Catholic Church and European states, primarily the German Empire. The purpose of the invasions was to spread Catholicism and conquer new lands that knighthood needed.

The first armed clash between the Russian-Polovtsian squads and the Mongol-Tatar army took place on May 31, 1223 on the river. Kalka near the Sea of ​​Azov and ended in the complete defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian combined army.

The conquest of Russian lands by the Mongol-Tatars was carried out during two subsequent campaigns: 1237-1238. , when North-Eastern Rus' was captured, and 1239-1240, as a result of which Chernigov, Kiev and other principalities of southern Rus' were conquered.

These events served as the beginning of the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke over the Russian lands.

Questions for topic II(2)

1. Reflection of German-Swedish expansion into North-Western Rus'.

2.Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'. The struggle of the Russian lands against the Golden Horde rule.

Guidelines

1. Upon review first question, please note that in 1195, with the support of the Pope and the German emperor, the Livonian bishopric was formed in the territory where the Baltic tribes lived, which took upon itself the organization of the conquest of the Baltic states by the crusaders under the pretext of converting the local pagan population to the Catholic faith.

Most of the knights belonged to Teutonic Order and Order of the Sword(Brothers of Christ's Knighthood). In 1237, as a result of the unification of the Knights of the Order of the Sword with the Teutons, the Livonian Order, which was a branch of the Teutonic Order in the Baltic states.

For what purpose were the Teutonic Order and the Order of the Swordsmen formed?

How did they penetrate into the Baltic states and Western Russian lands, primarily into the Pskov and Novgorod territories?

What influence did the Livonian Order have on Rus'?

In the 20-30s of the 13th century. The crusaders conquered and baptized the Livonian and Estonian tribes, whose lands came into the possession of the German knights. Having captured Livonia, the crusaders came close to the possessions of Pskov and Novgorod.

The decisive role in the struggle of the Russian lands against the crusader danger was played by the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich, the son of Prince Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich.

Get to know the biography of the prince Alexander Yaroslavich

(Appendix 5).

Answer the questions:

When did Alexander Yaroslavich begin to reign in Novgorod?

How did the prince’s relationship with the Novgorodians develop?

Why did Alexander Yaroslavich begin to be called “Nevsky”?

What was the significance of the battle with the Swedish knights on the Neva River?

Please note that the turning point in the opposition of Russian lands to the invasions of the Crusaders and the Livonian Order was the battle on Lake Peipsi, which went down in history as Battle on the Ice, during which the Livonians were defeated by Russian troops under the command of Alexander Nevsky.

What sources contain information about the battle on Lake Peipsi?

What events preceded the battle?

Who joined the Russian troops?

Who took part in the battle on the side of the Livonian Order?

How were Russian and Livonian troops formed on the battlefield?

What fighting techniques did Alexander Nevsky use?

What information is available about the number of participants in the battle and losses on both sides?

Why did Russian troops win the battle?

2. Getting Started with Disclosure second question, it should be remembered that having managed to repel the invasion of Western European knights, Rus' was conquered by the Mongol-Tatars, whose rule lasted 240 years.

The Mongolian tribes are an ethnically heterogeneous conglomerate of tribes of Mongols, Tatars, Manchus, Turks and other nomadic tribes engaged in cattle breeding in the vast territories of Central Asia and the Far East. In the second half of the XII - early XIII centuries. The Mongol-Tatars experienced a period of collapse of tribal relations. During a fierce internecine struggle, one of the tribal leaders Temujin (Temujin) won, who in 1206 kurultai- at the congress of the Mongolian nobility - he was proclaimed the Great Khan of all Mongolian tribes and took the name of Genghis Khan.

In a short period of time, Genghis Khan created a large combat-ready army and a powerful aggressive state, the internal structure of which was subordinated to an active policy of conquest. By the time of the invasion of Rus', the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan included China, Korea, Central Asia, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Transcaucasia, Syria, the steppe regions of Eastern Europe and Kazakhstan. Mongol troops reached Egypt and Austria, Indonesia and the Japanese islands.

Pay attention to the features of the formation of the Mongol Empire.

Try to answer the questions:

How did Temujin begin his activities to unite the Mongol tribes into a single state?

What qualities did Genghis Khan have as a statesman and commander?

What were the features of the government structure of the Mongol Empire?

What were the main reasons for the aggressive policy of the Mongol-Tatars and how is this related to their economic activities?

What advantages did the Mongol-Tatar army have?

What territories were conquered by Genghis Khan?

The all-Mongol campaign to the West into the lands of Volga Bulgaria and Rus' was led by the grandson of Genghis Khan - Khan Batu.

When did Batu Khan become the ruler of the Jochi ulus?

What territories were included in this ulus?

Why were campaigns undertaken in Russian lands?

What qualities did Batu Khan have as a commander and ruler?

Did Batu Khan succeed in becoming the Great Khan of the entire Mongol Empire?

“Batu’s invasion” of Rus' began in the late autumn of 1237.

Which Russian principality was the first to stand in the way of the Mongol troops?

Which Russian cities were captured by Batu during his first campaign against Rus'?

Where did the main battle take place between the main forces of North-Eastern Rus' and the Mongols? Who led the Russian squads?

Why was Kozelsk called the “evil city” by the Mongols?

Get acquainted with the chronicle evidence of the invasion of Batu Khan on the Principality of Kiev. Why do you think the conquest of the Russian principalities by the Mongols was accompanied by cruelty, violence, destruction, and mass deaths?

Veliky Novgorod is considered the richest economically and politically perfect from the point of view of government, which avoided the fate of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, although it was forced to pay a collective tribute (“black forest”) to the Golden Horde.

In the occupied Russian territories, which became dependent on the Golden Horde, a Mongol-Tatar (Golden Horde) yoke- a set of economic and political measures that ensured the dominance of the Golden Horde over Russia. What was the Golden Horde yoke?

When analyzing the content of the Golden Horde's policy towards the Russian principalities, keep in mind that from the very beginning two leading positions of the Russian princes emerged.

Some like Daniil Galitsky, despite the military superiority of the Mongol-Tatars, they considered it possible to continue the military struggle against them. Alexander Nevsky followed a different political line, convinced that in conditions when the Russian lands were devastated, it was necessary to establish peaceful relations with the Golden Horde and recognize dependence on the Mongol khans.

Study the biographies of Daniil Galitsky and Alexander Nevsky (Appendix 5) .

Why do you think they took different positions?

What facts from Danil Galitsky’s biography influenced his choice?

Under the conditions of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the Mongol khans developed a special relationship with the Russian Orthodox Church. What did this mean?

In Russian historiography, there are different points of view on the impact the yoke had on the Russian principalities and lands. (See Appendix 4). State the leading points of view. Which position do you think is the most reliable? Justify your answer.

When studying the question of the consequences of the Golden Horde yoke, which it had for the development of Russian lands, we recommend weighing all the pros and cons, “gains” and “losses” of Rus' over the long years of Horde captivity. From the Mongols, Rus' took despotism, a vertical political model - a “monologue” of power, legal consciousness, censuses, taxes, pit service, military techniques, and some words. A. Toynbee wrote: “Can someone borrow someone else’s civilization partially, without the risk of being gradually drawn into adopting it entirely”?

How will you answer this question?

Problem task

Khan Batu, during a campaign in Europe, being several days away from Rome, turned the army back. In the 13th century. The West was on edge. Mongol hordes were expected even in England. Batu passed through Rus' to Hungary, the Mongols defeated the Hungarian, German and Polish forces. Out of 60 battles, the Mongols did not lose a single one. But, having reached the Adriatic Sea, they stopped and turned back. Why?

Practical task: Make a table of the main campaigns during the Mongol-Tatar conquest of Rus' (1237–1242) and find out:

· direction of the main attack of the Mongol-Tatar troops on Rus' and
ranks of defeat of Russian squads;

· what features of the government system the Golden Horde had;

· which of the Russian princes was the first to receive the label for the great reign;

· at
which Russian prince developed the basic principles and features of the Golden Horde yoke;

· why the Russian Orthodox Church was exempt from paying tribute and
actually turned into a privileged organization in Rus';

· how the relations of Russian princes with the rulers of the Golden Horde developed during the 14th-15th centuries.

Index of basic terms for the topic:

Autochthons- the indigenous, original population of the country.

Basma- a plate with an inscription imprinted on it, which was issued by the Horde khans in the 13th-15th centuries. like a credential.

Baskak- representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands. Horde tribute collector in the Russian principalities in the second half of the 13th – early 14th centuries.

Boyar feudal republic- a form of political structure in medieval Rus' of the 12th-15th centuries, in which supreme power belongs to aristocratic feudal families, handing over the reins of government to elected representatives.

Besermen- Muslim merchants who were in charge of collecting tribute.

Veche- national assembly in ancient and medieval Rus'.

Volokhi- Eastern Roman people, ancestors of modern Young People and Romanians.

Patrimony- family hereditary ownership of land.

Military democracy– social structure in the transition from primitiveness to the state. While preserving the remnants of primitive collectivism, tribal leaders gradually turn into tribal princes, in whose hands all management of the tribe or union of tribes is concentrated. A squad is formed around the leader, separated from the tribal militia and personally subordinate to him. At the same time, tribal nobility also stands out - the heads of clans, strong patriarchal families. There is a process of social differentiation (stratification).

Virnik– vira collector, i.e. fine for murder.

Glagolitic- one of two Slavic alphabets. It differs from the Cyrillic alphabet in the shape of the letters.

Druzhina(from the Sanskrit word “dru” - “follow”) - a detachment of warriors who united around the tribal leader during the period of decomposition of the clan system, and then the prince, and constituted a privileged layer of society.

Yemets– “sale” collector, i.e. fine for theft.

Lives– book biographies of saints, clergy and secular persons canonized by the Christian Church.

Princely Tiun- the ruler-deputy of the prince in the city, who was involved in the affairs of the current administration and carried out court proceedings on behalf of the prince.

Feeding- a system of local government in which the governor received not a salary, but a portion of the taxes collected in the territory subordinate to him.

"Ladder Climb"(from “ladder”) - a special order of succession to princes of power. The seniority of cities in the Russian land corresponded to the seniority of princely sons in the family: the eldest received the reign of Kyiv after the death of his father, followed by Novgorod and Chernigov. The elder brother became the Grand Duke, but after his death the Kiev table passed not to his children, but to his younger brothers or the next relatives, the eldest in the family.

Metropolitan – in a number of Christian churches one of the highest ranks of bishops. The head of a large diocese, subordinate to the patriarch.

Mytnik– trade duty collector – myta.

Natural economy- a type of economy in which all products and goods are produced not for sale, but for domestic consumption.

Community– a form of social organization. The primitive (tribal) community is characterized by collective labor and consumption, consanguinity. A later form, the neighboring (territorial) community, combines individual and communal ownership of land. The community has full or partial self-government.

Customary law– a set of unwritten rules of behavior (customs) that have developed in society as a result of their repeated traditional use and sanctioned by the state.

Ognishchanin(from “fire” - “house”) - manager of the prince’s personal household.

Horde exit – the annual tribute that the Russian lands paid to the Golden Horde.

Undercut- a place in the middle of the forest, cleared for arable land.

Estate- land ownership provided for the period of service, not subject to inheritance.

Row- treaty, agreement in Ancient Rus'.

Sacralization- giving a sacred character to a particular person or event.

Destiny- the share of a member of the princely family in the ancestral domain.

Ulus- separate lands subject to the khan.

Christianity– one of the three world religions. It is based on faith in Jesus Christ as the God-man and Savior. The source of the doctrine of Christianity is the Holy Tradition, the main one of which is the Holy Scripture (Bible), as well as the “Creed”, decisions of ecumenical and some local councils, and individual writings of the church fathers. Christianity arose in the 1st century. AD among the Jews. In the 4th century. became the state religion of the Roman Empire. By the 13th century. all of Europe was Christianized.

Ethnonym- name of the people.

Paganism– traditional designation for religions based on polytheism. In modern science it is designated by the word “polytheism” in contrast to “monotheism” - monotheism.

Label- a preferential charter of the Golden Horde khans to the secular and spiritual feudal lords of the subject lands, giving the right to exercise supreme powers.

From the second half of the 11th century. In Rus', new processes begin, characterized, first of all, by the disintegration of the hitherto unified state into separate, in fact, independent lands.

From the second half of the 11th century. In Rus', new processes begin, characterized, first of all, by the disintegration of the hitherto unified state into separate, in fact, independent lands.

For a long time, Soviet historical science explained the reasons for fragmentation by the growing class struggle of peasants against the exploiters, which forced the latter to keep the forces necessary to suppress it locally, as a result of which the independence and authority of local princes increased. Another reason - already of an economic nature - was the dominance of a subsistence (closed) economy.

However, the above reasons do not very well explain the collapse of Rus'. Firstly, we have almost no data on any major mass uprisings of the 11th - 12th centuries (with the exception of news of events in Suzdal land in 1024 and 1071, or in Kiev in 1068, where unrest was very difficult to define as class), and secondly, the natural nature of the economy is characteristic of both appanage and united Rus', and, therefore, this fact in itself cannot explain anything.

As for pre-Soviet historiography, it cited as the main reason for the collapse the erroneous decision of Yaroslav the Wise to divide the lands of the Kyiv state between his sons. However, this statement is also vulnerable to criticism: after all, even before Yaroslav, the princes made similar divisions, but Rus' maintained its unity.

Apparently, it is impossible to get an answer to the question about the reasons for the collapse without understanding what dictated the very unity of the state and how its main functions changed over time.

Ancient Rus' was united, first of all, thanks to the common desire for predatory campaigns against Byzantium. However, by the end of the 10th century. the benefits in the form of booty and tribute began to be noticeably inferior in importance to the benefits received from the development of ordinary trade, which became possible, firstly, thanks to the conclusion of trade agreements with the Byzantine Empire, and secondly, due to the increase in wealth in the hands of the prince (from in whose name, in fact, Russian merchants traded), caused by the increase in the collection of tribute taxes after the stabilization of relations within the state. Thus, the need to carry out military campaigns against Byzantium practically disappeared, which led to their complete cessation.

It was also possible to stabilize relations with the “steppe”. Svyatoslav had already defeated the Khazars, Vladimir and Yaroslav actually put an end to the Pechenegs, and only the Polovtsians continued to harass Rus' with their raids. However, the forces of the Polovtsians were very small, so there was no need to attract troops of the entire Old Russian state to confront them. Moreover, even those relatively small squads that opposed the Polovtsians inflicted such impressive blows that by the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. The Polovtsians found themselves in vassal dependence on Rus' (more precisely, on the southern Russian princes).

As for internal functions, they could indeed be carried out with great success within separate, relatively small territories. The increasing complexity of public life required not the rare appearance of a judge-arbiter from the center, but daily regulation. Local interests increasingly capture the princes sitting in individual lands, who begin to identify them with their own interests.

Thus, by the end of the 11th century. the obvious disappearance of those common, uniting interests that had previously cemented the state quite firmly was revealed. Other connecting threads, say, economic ones (here, it is worth remembering the natural nature of the economy), simply did not exist. That is why Rus', having lost most of what connected it, fell apart.

However, the collapse was not absolute. Along with this centrifugal tendency, centripetal ones also persisted. They were expressed, in particular, in maintaining the prestige of the title of Grand Duke of Kyiv (although it no longer plays a real unifying role). In addition, the princes from time to time found it necessary to gather at their inter-princely congresses to discuss emerging common problems.

And yet the main trend was undoubtedly centrifugal. The main principle of the collapse was already fixed at the first inter-princely congress in Lyubech in 1097: “everyone keeps his own patrimony.”

At the same time, the statehood of Rus', of course, did not disappear, it simply moved to a new level - land. Accordingly, changes have occurred in power structures.

At the land level, two main types of organization of power have formed, which can be conditionally defined as “republican” and “monarchical”. However, the most important elements of these systems are the same: the veche, the prince, the boyars. But the ratio of these elements in the political systems of various Russian lands is very different.

If in the Novgorod land, traditionally classified as a “feudal republic,” the leading role was played by the veche and boyars, while the prince performed only the functions of a military leader and guarantor of the judicial system (and an agreement was concluded with him, failure to comply with which threatened him with expulsion), then in In the principalities, on the contrary, the leading positions were occupied by the prince and his boyar advisers, while the veche could only temporarily acquire a noticeable influence on the government (as a rule, spontaneously from below, or in the event of a conflict between the prince and the boyars).

The most stable positions within the framework of Ancient Rus' in the 12th century. occupied Novgorod and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. But, if Novgorod never laid claim to leading roles in the political life of Rus', then the Vladimir princes (Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky) very actively fought with other princes both for individual territories and for obtaining leading positions (if not supremacy in general) among other Russian lands. However, the process of disintegration gradually takes over the Vladimir Principality, which, like others, begins to plunge into the abyss of strife.

In general, inter-princely strife is perhaps the main theme of chronicles and works of literature of the 12th - 13th centuries, which often creates a distorted idea of ​​them as the main feature of the appanage period, painting an image of the gradual decline of Rus', becoming a defenseless victim of any more or less strong enemy. Sometimes one gets the impression of the fatal inevitability of the death of the Old Russian state. In fact, the influence of strife on the development of Ancient Rus' is clearly exaggerated.

The appanage period not only was not a time of decline, but, on the contrary, meant the flourishing of the Old Russian state and, above all, in the sphere of culture.

Of course, strife weakened unity, and therefore the possibility of joint resistance to a major enemy, but in the foreseeable space such an enemy did not exist in Rus'.

The collapse of the Old Russian state, thus, looks like a natural stage in the development of Old Russian statehood, forming more developed state structures, laying the foundations for the emergence of a society independent of the state, influencing state policy.

Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.

Alexander Nevskiy

Udelnaya Rus' originates in 1132, when Mstislav the Great dies, which leads the country to a new internecine war, the consequences of which had a huge impact on the entire state. As a result of subsequent events, independent principalities emerged. In Russian literature, this period is also called fragmentation, since all events were based on the disunion of lands, each of which was actually an independent state. Of course, the dominant position of the Grand Duke was preserved, but this was already a nominal figure rather than a truly significant one.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' lasted almost 4 centuries, during which the country underwent strong changes. They affected both the structure, the way of life, and the cultural customs of the peoples of Russia. As a result of the isolated actions of the princes, Rus' for many years found itself branded with a yoke, which was only possible to get rid of after the rulers of the destinies began to unite around a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the Golden Horde. In this material we will consider the main distinctive features of appanage Rus' as an independent state, as well as the main features of the lands included in it.

The main reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus' stem from the historical, economic and political processes that were taking place in the country at that point in time. The following main reasons for the formation of Appanage Rus' and fragmentation can be identified:

This whole set of measures led to the fact that the causes of feudal fragmentation in Rus' turned out to be very significant and led to irreversible consequences that almost put the very existence of the state at stake.

Fragmentation at a certain historical stage is a normal phenomenon that almost any state has encountered, but in Rus' there were certain distinctive features in this process. First of all, it should be noted that literally all the princes who ruled the estates were from the same ruling dynasty. There was nothing like this anywhere else in the world. There have always been rulers who held power by force, but had no historical claims to it. In Russia, almost any prince could be chosen as chief. Secondly, the loss of the capital should be noted. No, formally Kyiv retained a leading role, but this was only formal. At the beginning of this era, the Kiev prince was still dominant over everyone, other fiefs paid him taxes (whoever could). But literally within a few decades this changed, since first the Russian princes took the previously impregnable Kyiv by storm, and after that the Mongol-Tatars literally destroyed the city. By this time, the Grand Duke was the representative of the city of Vladimir.

Appanage Rus' - consequences of existence

Any historical event has its causes and consequences, which leave one or another imprint on the processes occurring within the state during such achievements, as well as after them. The collapse of the Russian lands in this regard was no exception and revealed a number of consequences that were formed as a result of the emergence of individual appanages:

1. Uniform population of the country. This is one of the positive aspects that was achieved due to the fact that the southern lands became the object of constant wars. As a result, the main population was forced to flee to the northern regions to find safety. If by the time the state of Udelnaya Rus was formed, the northern regions were practically deserted, then by the end of the 15th century the situation had already changed radically.
2. Development of cities and their arrangement. This point also includes economic, spiritual, and craft innovations that appeared in the principalities. This is due to a rather simple thing - the princes were full-fledged rulers in their lands, to maintain which it was necessary to develop a natural economy so as not to depend on their neighbors.
3. The appearance of vassals. Since there was no single system providing security to all principalities, weak lands were forced to accept the status of vassals. Of course, there was no talk of any oppression, but such lands did not have independence, since in many issues they were forced to adhere to the point of view of a stronger ally.
4. Decrease in the country's defense capability. The individual squads of the princes were quite strong, but still not numerous. In battles with equal opponents, they could win, but strong enemies alone could easily cope with each of the armies. Batu’s campaign clearly demonstrated this when the princes, in an attempt to defend their lands alone, did not dare to join forces. The result is widely known - 2 centuries of yoke and the murder of a huge number of Russians.
5. Impoverishment of the country's population. Such consequences were caused not only by external enemies, but also by internal ones. Against the backdrop of the yoke and constant attempts by Livonia and Poland to seize Russian possessions, internecine wars do not stop. They are still large-scale and destructive. In such a situation, as always, the common population suffered. This was one of the reasons for the migration of peasants to the north of the country. This is how one of the first mass migrations of people took place, which gave birth to appanage Rus'.

We see that the consequences of the feudal fragmentation of Russia are far from clear-cut. They have both negative and positive sides. Moreover, it should be remembered that this process is characteristic not only of Rus'. All countries have gone through it in one form or another. Ultimately, the destinies united anyway and created a strong state capable of ensuring its own security.

The collapse of Kievan Rus led to the emergence of 14 independent principalities, each of which had its own capital, its own prince and army. The largest of them were the Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn principalities. It should be noted that in Novgorod a political system that was unique at that time was formed - a republic. Appanage Rus' became a unique state of its time.

Features of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

This inheritance was located in the northeastern part of the country. Its inhabitants were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, which was facilitated by favorable natural conditions. The largest cities in the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. As for the latter, it became the main city of the country after Batu captured Kyiv.

The peculiarity of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality is that for many years it maintained its dominant position, and the Grand Duke ruled from these lands. As for the Mongols, they also recognized the power of this center, allowing its ruler to personally collect tribute for them from all destinies. There are a lot of guesses on this matter, but we can still say with confidence that Vladimir was the capital of the country for a long time.

Features of the Galicia-Volyn principality

It was located in the southwest of Kyiv, the peculiarities of which were that it was one of the largest in its time. The largest cities of this inheritance were Vladimir Volynsky and Galich. Their significance was quite high, both for the region and for the state as a whole. Local residents for the most part were engaged in crafts, which allowed them to actively trade with other principalities and states. At the same time, these cities could not become important shopping centers due to their geographical location.

Unlike most appanages, in Galicia-Volyn, as a result of fragmentation, wealthy landowners very quickly emerged, who had a huge influence on the actions of the local prince. This land was subject to frequent raids, primarily from Poland.

Principality of Novgorod

Novgorod is a unique city and a unique destiny. The special status of this city dates back to the formation of the Russian state. It was here that it originated, and its inhabitants have always been freedom-loving and wayward. As a result, they often changed princes, keeping only the most worthy ones. During the Tatar-Mongol yoke, it was this city that became the stronghold of Rus', a city that the enemy was never able to take. The Principality of Novgorod once again became a symbol of Russia and a land that contributed to their unification.

The largest city of this principality was Novgorod, which was guarded by the Torzhok fortress. The special position of the principality led to the rapid development of trade. As a result, it was one of the richest cities in the country. In terms of its size, it also occupied a leading place, second only to Kyiv, but unlike the ancient capital, the Novgorod principality did not lose its independence.

Significant dates

History is, first of all, dates that can tell better than any words what happened in each specific segment of human development. Speaking about feudal fragmentation, we can highlight the following key dates:

• 1185 - Prince Igor made a campaign against the Polovtsians, immortalized in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”
• 1223 – Battle of the Kalka River
• 1237 - the first Mongol invasion, which led to the conquest of Appanage Rus'
• July 15, 1240 – Battle of the Neva
• April 5, 1242 – Battle of the Ice
• 1358 – 1389 – The Grand Duke of Russia was Dmitry Donskoy
• July 15, 1410 – Battle of Grunwald
• 1480 - great stand on the Ugra River
• 1485 – annexation of the Tver principality to the Moscow one
• 1505-1534 - the reign of Vasily 3, which was marked by the liquidation of the last inheritances
• 1534 - the reign of Ivan 4, the Terrible, begins.

Specific Rus'(from XII-XVI centuries) - period feudal fragmentation in Rus' (similar to the period of fragmentation in France and Germany), during which the Russian principalities acquired significant independence in the political and economic spheres.

From the second third of the 12th century. in Rus' began, which lasted until the end of the 15th century. period feudal fragmentation, through which all the feudal countries of Europe and Asia passed.

From the very beginning of its existence, the Old Russian state was not a unitary centralized state. Like most early medieval powers, the collapse of Rus' was natural. The period of disintegration is usually interpreted not simply as discord among Rurik's expanding offspring, but as an objective and even progressive process associated with the increase in boyar land ownership. The principalities arose their own nobility, which was more profitable to have their own prince defending their rights than to support the Grand Duke of Kyiv. The division of Rus' by Yaroslav the Wise in 1054 is considered to be the beginning of the division into principalities proper. The next important stage was the decision of the Lyubech Congress of Princes “let each one keep his fatherland” in 1097, but Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest son and heir Mstislav the Great, through seizures and dynastic marriages, were able to again put all the principalities under the control of Kyiv.

The milestone of collapse is considered to be 1132 - the year of death of the last powerful Russian prince Mstislav the Great. The death of Mstislav in 1132 is considered to be the beginning of the period feudal fragmentation.

After the breakup Old Russian state into individual principalities, the largest Russian lands became the principalities: Novgorod land, Vladimir-Suzdal, Ryazan and Smolensk principalities, as well as the Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk and Chernigov principalities.

Process feudal fragmentation manifested itself, first of all, in the fact that there was a gradual but noticeable decline in the authority of Kyiv as the main center of Rus'. The princes, who fiercely fought among themselves for the Kiev table, in fact, begin to fight for the title of Grand Duke, and Kyiv, which changed hands many times, ceases over time to attract their attention as the place of the great reign itself. In general, the Kiev principality at the beginning of the 13th century, which had been devastated many times over, was already much less attractive than the Vladimir-Suzdal or Galician-Volyn principality. And, naturally, the princes, preoccupied with problems in their own destinies, did not attach so much importance to the problems of the Kyiv land. And it is no coincidence that already in the 60-70s. XII century Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky, in fact remaining the Grand Duke, lived in Vladimir and, establishing and replacing the Kyiv princes, did not strive for Kyiv himself, but wanted to transfer the title of Grand Duke to North-Eastern Rus'. But the title of Grand Duke will finally pass to Vladimir only in 1185-1186, when the Big Nest is assigned to Vsevolod Yuryevich.

Causes of feudal fragmentation.

The main reason: Rus' was not a centralized state, so its collapse into separate principalities was inevitable.

The second reason, closely related to the first: the strengthening of the principalities. Individual principalities of that era grew significantly stronger and their princes did not want to obey anyone. They wanted to rule independently, even if only in their own land. Such sentiments were widespread. Each principality had its own ruler, most of whom refused to recognize anyone's authority over them. If Rus' were a single unitary state, then there would be no separate principalities within it. Consequently, there would be no feudal fragmentation.

Third reason: Growth of trading cities. We are mainly talking about Novgorod and Smolensk, which, due to their geographical location, were the country's trading centers and, as a result, quickly grew and expanded. Naturally, against the backdrop of growing general distrust of Kyiv, the princes of these domains wanted to gain independence and not pay taxes to Kyiv.

Other reasons. For example, the absence of a serious external threat. Rus' did not have strong enemies outside the country. For Russia at that time there was a lull in wars, and the country’s neighbors could not encroach on its possessions, since they were all weak at that time. Of course, there were, for example, the same Polovtsians who periodically raided the eastern lands, but the princes always dealt with their enemies on their own. There was no need for a strong, united army. And at the moment when it was needed to fight Batu, it was not possible to collect it, for the same reasons of isolation.

Consequences of feudal fragmentation.

The Russian land was divided into two large spaces - northeastern and southwestern.

Feudal fragmentation led to a decrease in the defense potential of Rus'. The weakening of the country coincided with an unfavorable foreign policy situation. By the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' was faced with aggression from three directions. In addition to the traditional Polovtsian danger (primarily for the southern Russian principalities of Kyiv and Chernigov), enemies appeared in the northwest: Catholic German Orders and Lithuanian tribes that threatened Polotsk, Pskov, Novgorod and Smolensk. The Tatar-Mongol invasion was fatal for the Russian lands.
As a result, North-Eastern Rus' came under the yoke of the Golden Horde and subsequently consolidated around Moscow, while Western Russian lands fell under the rule of the Lithuanians and then the Poles. However, the Russian identity established in the Kiev period did not disappear anywhere: the population living on opposite sides of the borders that split Rus' continued to identify themselves as Russians.

For example, the famous Polotsk pioneer printer of the 16th century, a subject of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Francis Skorina (who is today a key figure in the “Belarusian” historical narrative) designated the territory of his small homeland with the term “Rus” (“my brother Rus”), and translated the Holy Scripture into the language of his fellow countrymen called the "Ruska Bible". In most historical sources, the ethnicity of the Polotsk pioneer printer is defined as “Rusin” or “Rus”, and his native language is defined as “Russian”.
In his educational activities, Skorina focused on the all-Russian audience, not limited to the borders of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: his books were written in a language that was easily understood on both sides of the Lithuanian-Moscow border, and therefore in 1534 he made a trip to the Principality of Moscow, where he tried to start a book publishing business activity.

Specific Rus' in foreign sources.

The fact of the division of Russian ethnic territory between various state entities was recorded on European maps and in the works of foreign authors.

For example, the Austrian diplomat Sigismund von Herberstein in his “Notes on Muscovy” (mid-16th century) noted: “Russia is now owned by three sovereigns: most of it belongs to the Prince of Moscow, the second is the Grand Duke of Lithuania, the third is the King of Poland, who now owns both Poland and Lithuania."

Another foreign diplomat, the ambassador of the German emperor, Baron Mayerberg, who visited Moscow in 1661, wrote: “The name of Russia extends far, because it includes the entire space from the Sarmatian mountains (Carpathians) and the Tira River, called the Dniester by the inhabitants, through both Volhynia to Borysthenes ( Dnieper) and to the plains of Polotsk, adjacent to Lesser Poland, ancient Lithuania and Livonia, even to the Gulf of Finland, and the entire country from the Karelians, Lapontsy and the Northern Ocean, the entire length of the borders of Scythia, even to the Nogai, Volga and Perekop Tatars. And by the name Great Russia, Muscovites mean that space that lies within the boundaries of Livonia, the White Sea, the Tatars and the Dnieper and is usually known as “Muscovy”.

With the collapse of the Old Russian state into independent principalities, a period of feudal fragmentation began or, as defined by historians of the 19th century, the appanage period.

Not a single early feudal state in Europe escaped political fragmentation. All of them, after a short-term and stormy prosperity, entered a period of crisis and collapse. Ancient Rus' is no exception. From this we can conclude that the collapse of early feudal states is a natural phenomenon, generated by common causes. According to researchers who support the formational approach, the collapse of “barbarian” empires is a direct consequence of the genesis of feudalism, primarily the formation and development of large feudal land ownership. The feudal class gains economic and political power. He is increasingly oriented toward the local prince. Social and political life is fragmented and confined to sovereign lands. In isolated principalities with hereditary dynasties, economic and cultural development is more intensive. The local prince, out of habit, looking longingly at Kyiv, does not break off relations with his hereditary “fatherland,” the main source of power.

The collapse of the Old Russian state is associated with the growth of cities and their transformation into independent political centers. This process intensified with the emergence of local dynasties. From now on, city-volosts with strong veche orders did not want to put up with the infringement of their interests. The natural ally of the cities was the local prince, whose power and strength depended entirely on the support of local landowners and the veche.

The change in trade routes led to the fact that the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” gradually lost its significance as the most important trade artery connecting the East and Byzantium with Europe, and this also had a detrimental effect on the Rurik power.

The pressure of the Cumans-Kipchaks on the agricultural regions of the south of the country was detrimental to the unity of Ancient Rus'. The center of the Polovtsian land was located between the Dnieper and Donets rivers. From here the Polovtsians settled first in the middle Dnieper and upper Donets, then in the lower reaches of the Dnieper, in the Ciscaucasia, in the Crimea, and finally, already in the 13th century. - between the Don and Volga rivers.

Relations between Southern Rus' and the Steppe were not easy. Differences in lifestyle, language, culture and, most importantly, in the way of farming - all this left its mark on the relationship. The inhabitants of the southern principalities themselves were interested in peaceful trade - after all, the Polovtsian steppe connected Rus' with the countries of the Black Sea region and Transcaucasia. The Polovtsians, like many nomadic pastoral peoples, also preferred to maintain trade relations in the vicinity of strong states. However, Ancient Rus', which was declining and losing its former unity, could not organize an effective defense of the southern borders. Weakness was perceived by the nomads as an opportunity for military enrichment. Chronicles from year to year report on raids by hordes, clashes between Russians and Polovtsians. But joint campaigns of Russian princes with Polovtsian khans are also not uncommon - sometimes against Russian lands.

The “dragging” of the Polovtsians into strife led to the fact that the princes began to strive to strengthen their relations with dangerous and at the same time much needed neighbors. The practice included dynastic marriages. Back in 1094, Prince Svyatopolk married the daughter of the Polovtsian khan Tugorkan (his name is known from Russian fairy tales, where he is called Tugarin). Princes Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Mstislav Udaloy and others married Polovtsy women or were themselves half Polovtsy. In the family of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich, whose campaign in the Polovtsian steppe was sung in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” five generations of princes were married to the daughters of Polovtsian khans.

Due to the threat of raids, residents of the Middle Dnieper region left their homes. One stream of migration rushed to the northeast, to the distant Zalessk region, the other to the southwest, to the Galician-Volyn lands. In the Middle Ages, population density, political and economic prosperity were interrelated concepts.

The exodus of the population directly affected the power of the Kyiv princes, who found it difficult to assert their primacy by force.

Thus, the collapse of the Old Russian state is the result of several reasons, some of which are common to all barbarian states, others are closely related to the peculiarities of the historical development of the Rurik power.

However, with the collapse of the Old Russian state, the consciousness of the unity of the Russian land was not lost. The principalities continued to live according to common laws - “Russian Truth”; within the framework of one Orthodox metropolis they remained united in culture and language. It is appropriate to talk about a kind of federation of Russian principalities, capable, if interests coincide, even of joint actions. Nevertheless, the disintegration into destinies had a detrimental effect on the military and political power of the Russian land.

A well-known paradox is that the loss of political unity, often perceived as a step back in the development of statehood, testified to the maturity of society. The specific period is characterized by the growth of cities and significant cultural achievements. Having weakened militarily, Rus' moved forward in economic and socio-political development. It is not difficult to notice the contradictory nature of the consequences of fragmentation.

With the advent of the era of fragmentation, the number of appanage principalities continuously grew. In the middle of the 12th century. there were 15 of them, by the beginning of the 13th century - 50, and in the 14th century - no less than 250. Of this huge number of sovereign lands that were once part of the Old Russian state, the largest were the Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn principalities and the Novgorod land. These lands retained a single territory for quite a long time, which predetermined their great influence on the other principalities.

Turning to the topic of the heritage of Ancient Rus', one should pay attention to three main types of political structure of sovereign principalities and lands. All of them differ in the ratio of “power elements” that were formed in the era of Ancient Rus' - the prince, the veche, the squad (boyars). These differences and the political opportunities associated with them had a huge, and in some cases even decisive, influence on the historical destinies of the various regions that were once part of the Old Russian state.

The first type of state is represented by the Kyiv and Galician-Volyn principalities. The form of government here is usually called the early feudal monarchy. In Kyiv, and later in Galich and Volyn, princely power was still strong. The prince relied on his squad and depended on it. Sometimes the boyars even interfered in the prince's personal life. Thus, in 1173, the Galician prince Yaroslav Osmomysl was forced to submit to the decision of his boyars. They forced the prince to return his legal wife, Princess Olga, and son Vladimir from exile. Yaroslav himself was arrested, and his Cuman allies who helped him were hacked to death. The princely beloved Nastasya, whose son Oleg Yaroslav preferred over his legitimate son Vladimir, was burned at the stake by the Galician boyars.

In 1187, the dying Yaroslav was forced to negotiate with his “husbands” on the transfer of power in Galich to his youngest son Oleg, bypassing the elder Vladimir. The southern princes conferred with their squads on issues of war and peace. At the same time, the prince’s voice turned out to be decisive, but only after he convinced the warriors that he was right. If the prince for some reason could not fulfill his functions, the real power in the southern principalities was taken into the hands of the city vein. This happened in 1113, when the Kiev veche, contrary to the existing order of inheritance, invited Vladimir Monomakh to the grand-ducal throne. Such relations between the prince and the city council were characteristic not only of Kyiv. In 1206, Hungarians committed rampage in Galich. Residents of the city turned to their prince Mstislav for protection. However, he failed to appease the uninvited strangers, and then the residents drove the prince away.

A different type of state developed in the northeast of Rus'. This region did not have deep veche traditions. Nevertheless, control in Rostov and Suzdal in the 12th century. was built on the interaction of the city vein and the princes appointed from Kyiv. In 1157, Andrei Bogolyubsky became the Grand Duke of Kyiv. In the same year, the residents of Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir-on-Klyazma elected him as their prince. In 1162, Andrei Bogolyubsky expelled his brothers and nephews from the Rostov-Suzdal land. Thus, the foundations were laid for the unlimited despotic power of the Vladimir prince, which established itself in North-Eastern Rus'.

Its own type of state power developed in the north-west of Rus'. Here the prince lost his influence in 1136, after the Novgorodians “showed the way” - they expelled the protege of the Kyiv prince Vsevolod Mstislavich from the city. From that time on, the position of the Novgorod prince became elective, and the power was significantly limited by the veche. The most important issues in the life of the republic were decided at the meeting. The main one is the election of officials.

The boyars play a huge role in the life of Novgorod. The economic and political power of the Novgorod boyars allowed them to monopolize the highest positions in the Novgorod administration. Thus, republics were established in Novgorod and Pskov. Considering the enormous role that the Novgorod boyars play in political life, many historians talk about a boyar, aristocratic republic.