The empirical method is what it means, the types and methods of empirical knowledge. Empirical data Analysis of empirical research

The empirical method is based on sensual perception and measurements of complex devices. Empirical methods are an important part of scientific research, along with theoretical. Without these techniques, no science, be it chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology - could not develop.

What does the empirical method mean?

The empirical or sensual method is the scientific knowledge of the surrounding reality by an experimental way, involving interaction with the subject being studied using experiments and observations. Empirical research methods help to identify objective laws for which the development of certain phenomena. These are complex and complex steps, and as a result, they occur new scientific discoveries.

Types of empirical methods

The empirical cognition of any science, the subject is built on the standard, proven over time of the methods that are identical for all disciplines, but in each specific area with its specificity characteristic of science. Empirical methods, types:

• observation:
• experiment;
• measurement;
• conversation;
• questioning;
• interview;
• conversation.

Empirical methods - advantages and disadvantages

The methods of empirical knowledge in contrast to theoreticals have the minimum possibility of errors, disadvantages, provided that the experiment repeated many times and gave similar results. Any empirical method involves human sense authorities who are a reliable tool for the knowledge of the surrounding world - and this is the main advantage of this method.

Empirical level methods

Empirical scientific knowledge methods are important for science no less than theoretical prerequisites. Experienced patterns are built, hypotheses are confirmed or denied, therefore the empirical method as a set of ways of sensory perception and data obtained by measuring instruments helps to push the horizons of science and receive new results.

Empirical research methods in pedagogy

Empirical methods of pedagogical research are based on all the same main components:

• pedagogical observation - a certain task is taken, a condition in which it is necessary to observe students and register the results of observation;
• polls (questioning, conversation, interviewing) - help get information on a certain subject, personal characteristics of students;
• studying students (graphic, written in various disciplines, creative) - give information about the individuality of the student, its inclinations to one or another object, the success in learning knowledge;
• studying school documentation (diaries, class magazines, personal cases) - allows you to evaluate the success of the pedagogical process as a whole.

Empirical methods in psychology

Psychological science developed from philosophy and the most basic instruments of the knowledge of someone else's mental reality, methods were adopted, with the help of which it can be clearly to see the manifestations of psyche interns - these are experiments. Physiological psychology, thanks to which psychology as a whole, has advanced as science was founded by a psychologist, physiologist V. Wyandt. Its laboratory of experimental psychology was opened in 1832. The empirical methods of research in psychology used by Wedund are used in classical experimental psychology:

1. Observation method. Study of behavioral reactions and personality actions in natural conditions and under experimental conditions with specified variables. Two types of observation: introspection (self-surveillance, look inside) - the necessary element of self-knowledge and tracking changes in itself and objective observation - an observer (psychologist) tracks and registers reactions, emotions, actions for the observed person or a group of people.
2. Experiment method. In the laboratory (laboratory experiment) - special conditions are created, necessary to confirm the psychological hypothesis or rejection. With the help of special equipment, the sensors are recorded by various physiological parameters (pulse, breathing, brain activity, reactions of pupil, change behavior). Natural (natural experiment) is carried out in human usual conditions with the creation of the desired situation.
3. Interview - providing information by a person by answering a series of issues.
4. Conversation - The empirical method based on verbal communication, during which the psychologist notes the psychological features of the person.
5. Tests - Specially designed techniques that include a number of questions, unfinished offers, work with images. Testing for certain topics help psychologists to identify personal features.

Empirical method in economics

The empirical or experienced method in the economy involves the knowledge of the reality of the economic situation in the world, this is done using tools:

1. Economic observation - carried out by economists for targeted perception of economic (economic) facts, while there are no active impact on these facts, observation is important for building theoretical models of the economy.
2. Economic experiment - There is already an active impact on the economic phenomenon, various conditions are simulated within the framework of the experiment and the impact is being studied.

If you take a separate segment of the economy - turnover, then the empirical methods of commodity will be as follows:

• measurements using technical devices or senses (method-operations measuring, organoleptic;
• examination and monitoring of the market (methods-operation).

Introduction

The word "empirical" literally means "what is perceived by the senses". When this adjective is used in relation to scientific research methods, it serves to designate techniques and methods associated with sensual experience. Therefore, they say that empirical methods are based on t. N. "Solid (irrefutable) data" ("Hard Data"). In addition, an empirical study firmly adheres to the scientific method as opposed to other research methodologies, such as naturalistic observation, archival research, etc. The most important and necessary prerequisite underlying the empirical research methodology is that it provides the ability to play and confirm / refutation . The addiction of empirical research to "solid data" requires high internal consistency and sustainability of measuring instruments (and measures) of those independent and dependent variables that are involved in order to scientific research. Internal consistency is the main condition for stability. Measurement tools cannot be high or at least quite reliable if these means supplying raw data for subsequent analysis will not give high intercoring. The dissatisfaction of this requirement contributes to the error dispersion system and leads to the receipt of ambiguous or misleading results.

The purpose of the test work is to consider the methods for analyzing empirical data.

The tasks of the test work is the consideration and allocation of the stages of the analysis process, their role in sociological research, as well as the selection of species and the type of grouping methods of analysis methods and their classification.

1 Preparation of empirical data for processing and analysis

The empirical social study is a scientific sequence of actions, which is called empirical when statistical facts are investigated by an experimental way.

The empirical study should have a system of methodological rules, which determines the features of the object of knowledge of this empirical science. The subject of empirical social research is the analysis and explanation of social phenomena by scientific methods. The peculiarity of the subject area is that social phenomena is susceptible to permanent changes and are very extensive. When studying various objects, various research methods are used depending on the objectives of the study: observations, experiment, survey, and others.

Usually the process of empirical research includes the following steps:

Determination of the subject and object of the study, the formulation of its goal and tasks;

Research planning and extension of working hypotheses;

• Sample for empirical research;

  Selection of methods and techniques.

Conducting a study aimed at collecting empirical material;

Processing empirical data;

Discussion and interpretation of data;

The formulation of conclusions confirming or refuting hypotheses.

Any empirical scientific research begins with the fact that the researcher fixes the severity of the properties of interest (or properties) of the object or object objects, as a rule, with the help of numbers. Thus, the objects of the study should be distinguished (in social sciences, these are most often people, subjects, their properties (what is interested in the researcher is the subject of study) and the symptoms reflecting the severity of properties in the numerical scale.

It is already necessary at the initial stages of research planning to decide which the sample size will be, which methods of collecting information will be used and, finally, which types of processing will be applied to the data obtained.

Empirical data may appear before the researcher in the form of :

The set of numbers characterizing those or other objects (as such aggregates can act, for example, the production characteristics of enterprises, the age of respondents, grades by graduates of schools, prestiges of some professions, etc.);

The sets of indicators of certain relations between the objects under consideration (for example, when studying production teams, such indicators can serve as indications of each team of the brigade to those, whether it likes to work together with any other member of the same brigade, such data is often used in the study of small groups;

Results of pairwise comparison by respondents of any objects (such data is used in the method of pair comparisons - the method of constructing the scale reflecting the average ratio of the studied aggregate of respondents to any objects).

A combination of certain statements (for example, respondents' answers to the question of their profession, about what they like in the government's policy; letters of readers of the newspaper to the editor; fragments from journal articles, etc.),

Texts of documents;

Anyway, fixed results of observation of the non-verbal behavior of any people, etc.

Most often in sociological studies, data is a set of values \u200b\u200bof any signs (characteristics, variables, values) measured for each of the objects studied.

When planning a study, a working hypothesis is formulated as a temporary assumption required to systematize the actual material, after which the hypothesis is specified.

The total hypothesis is determined by the goal of the entire study. In addition, private hypotheses are formulated, which are subject to empirical inspection and are alleged expected results. The hypothesis must be verified, that is, a verifiable (proven or refuted) with certain statistical and scientific methods. For this concept that it uses, and the corresponding judgments of an alleged nature should be sufficiently clear and specific. It is necessary to identify experimental and mathematic-statistical criteria in which the researcher can unambiguously assert: confirmed the hypothesis or not. Proof of hypotheses is based on facts, arguments and procedure for logical conclusions.

It is necessary to carefully approach the sampling of the subjects in an empirical study. It is important to take into account the floor, age, social situation, the level of education, the state of health, the individual and psychological features of the subjects and other parameters that can affect the results. The sample should simulate the general population, that is, to be representative of the entire category of people with respect to the entire studied category. To do this, it must be random or specially selected in such a way as to represent the main types of subjects existing in the population. In this case, the variables that are the source of artifacts, or eliminate, or their effect is averaged. Research conclusions should be distributed to all members of the group studied, and not just on representatives of this sample. The subjects need to be correctly distributed relative to different conditions of the study, it is important to ensure the equivalence of experimental and control groups.

The final stage of empirical sociological research implies processing, analysis and interpretation of data, obtaining empirically substantiated generalizations, conclusions and recommendations.

Processing the following components : 1) Editing and encoding information. The main purpose of this step is to unify and formalize the information that was obtained during the study. 2) Creating variables. Information collected on the basis of questionnaires in some cases directly responds to those questions that need to be solved in the study. Since questions obtained the form of indicators in the process of operationalization. Now it is necessary to conduct a reverse procedure, that is, translate data into a form that would have answered research questions. 3) Statistical analysis. This step is key in the process of analyzing sociological data.

The coding procedure can be denoted as a measurement procedure (direct, directly). Why? And because it is quite legitimate, for example, to put questions: how to measure the floor? How to measure age? How to measure belonging to the faculty? The questions themselves at first glance cause a certain bewilderment, because the answers to them are simple and obvious. However, the answer may be ambiguous. Depending on the objectives of the study of the sociologist, it may be interested in both the chronological age and mental (the comparison of these ages is especially important when studying children). The sociologist can be interested in both physiological field and "sociological" (male or female type of personality). As for the measurement of the phenomenon "satisfaction with study" and "degree of confidence about employment", then there is no unambiguous answer here and cannot be. These are complex phenomena from the point of view of study, measurement and analysis. We choose the third question as the only empirical indicator of "satisfaction" is explained very simply.

This kind of questions about satisfaction with the various sides of the human life wake up from one questionnaire to another. In this sense, the answer options are typical. And in this case, the encoding of the answer options, we consider measurement. The above is four coding methods. Just below, we will return to them. Questions how to measure the age and duration of independent work are also legitimate, and the answers to them are obvious.

Since the origin of empirical psychology, the main task of this direction was observation and identification of mental facts, as well as the principles of their mutual communication.

Thus, empirical psychology focuses on specific phenomena of the psychic life and states of man, and not on the immortal soul.

Determination of basic concepts

Empiricism - what it is? This direction in philosophy, denying any sources of knowledge besides sensual (direct) experience.

Empirism in psychology suggests that most of the knowledge people are obtained by studying and experience, and not thanks to genetic predisposition.

Empirics (empirists) - Who are these? These are supporters of the theoretical and cognitive position, in which knowledge is considered reliable only when it relies on experience.

Empirics are prone to practical activities, common, that activity is a direct dear to obtaining the result.

Empirically- Through experience, experiment or personal observation.

Empirical material - Any material assembled by an experienced way or by personal observation / data collection.

Empirical thinking - Thinking, the product of which is the primary generalization of the experience gained by practicing experience. This simple stage of knowledge, not deepening in theoretically.

Empirical thinking is often confused with practical thinking, but in fact it is two different categories.

Empirical generalization - Creating certain conclusions or the allocation of object properties for a single common feature expressed in verbal form. Creating classifications by properties allows you to work with a large volume of units (objects or facts).

Empirical observation - One of the methods of empirical research, expressed in the deliberate and directed perception of any object (object) of knowledge to obtain information about its qualities, properties and relationships.

Empirical analysis - Analysis of an object based on sensory perception and personal experience.

Empirical way - Method of study by observations and experiments with further identification of patterns.

Empirical evidence - Information confirming or refuting faith in the veracity of any judgments. All evidence is based primarily in feelings.

Empirical check - The method in which the object of the study is subjected to systematic observation in order to obtain reliable information.

Empirical data in psychology - The data obtained through the senses, experimentally.

In psychology, this material collected after direct observation or carrying out experiments, without concomitant theoretical conclusion.

Empirical and theoretical thinking

In the history of psychological knowledge happened Dividing conceptual thinking into two categories.

Theoretical and empirical Thinking is distinguished as two opposing concepts.

The first type of thinking is aimed at identifying, registering and describing the results of sensual experience and is called empirical.

Another type of thinking works with the essence of subjects, hidden and inaccessible to the senses to the laws of development. This type is called theoretical.

And empirical and theoretical thinking take the basis of a special type of abstraction and generalization. For an empirical level, this is a comparison of individual features of objects and the search for differences between them based on the identified qualities.

Those. First, formally similar features that can be assigned the status of "common". Then they are separated from others, fixing with the word-concept. The result is knowledge based on external (visual) evidence.

The empirical type of thinking does not imply an analysis of the features of the object itself, the connection of its parties, hidden from the senses. The thought goes in the direction of the private to the general, not delight in the nature of items.

Theoretical thinkingworks with specific features, leaving the basics for the unity of entire systems.

Psychology

Classical empirical psychology differs from the concept of "empirical", which operate today.

It is based on the idea that science needs to move away from reasoning about the soul And go to the study of mental phenomena.

The classic empirical psychology of consciousness is within the framework of the position in which ideas arise in the experience. This direction is not engaged in the study of mental phenomena through an empirical approach.

It does not require experienced research. And the data obtained by sensual learning or self-observation / observation takes place only as examples. In this school, the point of view applies only to the source of ideas.

Supporters of this direction in psychology believe that mental processes cannot be subject to objective study through self-surveillance, since for each individual individual, mental experiences will be individual and will not be able to act as a universal template.

Questioning

Based on the basis data obtained by observation and other methods.

Then, on the basis of this information make up the questionnaires.

Views of questionnaires in psychology:

• direct (questions imply a free and conscious response from the questionnaires);
• selective (subject chooses the most suitable / close response from the finished list);
• questionnaires - Scale (the subject assesses the correctness of certain statements-responses by assessing points in points).

Conversation

In the course of the conversation, participants enter the dialogue. One of the participants in the dialogue is tested. Second participant resets psychological reactions And the features of the subject, and then fixes them.

Interview

During the survey, the subject gives answers to the questions addressed to him that help remove psychological features Individual.

Types of surveys:

• oral;
• writing;
• free;
• according to the specified standards.

What does determinism principle in psychology mean? You will find on our website.

Test

Tests are used for accurate characteristics (expressed in quality and quantity).

The method involves a clearly established collection model and subsequent processing of the data obtained.

• test questionnaire;
• test tasks.

Experiment

The method of psychological research, in which the situation is being formed, contributing to the manifestation of personal psychological properties of the object being studied.

Types of experiments:

• natural;
• laboratory.

Modeling

Creating a modelwhich repeats the key features of the studied phenomenon in order to monitor (in the absence of the ability to explore the real prototype).

Sociometry

Study of the Group on the subject (as an example of the structure of relationships and compatibility).

By Ananyev K. observation methods of research Observation, experiment, psychodiagnosis, praxiometric method, modeling, biographical method.

The empirical method includes all the methods listed above.

The structure of knowledge is brief

The structure of empirical knowledge contains 4 levels:

1. First level. Single or protocol statements containing the condition of existence or not. In such protocols, time and place as the conditions of observation are recorded.
2. Second level. The basis of the level is the facts (general order statements in a static or universal form). They register information about the absence or availability of certain events, properties, relationships, etc. In the investigated plane. Also registration is subject to quantitative parameters of fixed data.
3. Third level. The level of level is empirical laws that are inherent in temporary and / or spatial constancy.
4. Fourth (highest) level. Phenomenological theories or a set of interconnected laws and facts.

Thanks to the empirical school, psychology has moved away from the speculative analysis of the psyche and made a step towards experimental methods of study. It gave rise to many discoveries in the field of psychological life.

Empirical methods of knowledge:

Stratification is the only way to study and control the values \u200b\u200bof others, in addition to exposure and disease, variables in data analysis. Under stratification understand the division of data on subgroups, or strata. For example, stratification on the floor or age means that the data are classified for men and women or by categories of age. The section contains a section on standardization in which standardization is given as an example. The standardization procedure is one of the types of stratified analysis.

The main purpose of the stratified analysis is the assessment and, if necessary, the control of interfering factors. Mixing occurs when any reason in addition to the exposure under study is more common in the exhibited group than in non-exposed. When stratifying data on the interfering factor, for example, men and women, each stratum will be free from the mixing effect of a stratified variable. That is, if the connection between the exposure and the disease is analyzed separately, say, men and women, each of the two strata on the floor will evaluate the exposure effect free from the interfering factor of the floor. Such stratified results are often communicated separately, but are combined into one result. An example of this is the standardization by age in the same section, where the displacement from age is controlled in this way.

Another purpose of a stratified analysis is an analysis of the effect modification. Modification of the effect means that the effect of exposure in some strata is stronger than in others. If, for example, the relative risk of the disease due to the exposure is 2 for women and 3 for men, the floor will modify this influence and, thus, the effect modifier.

The basic principle of using stratification to control the mixing will be illustrated on two examples: from a cohort study and from the study case-control.

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Essence of empirical economic analysis.

Note 1.

The empirical method in economic theory is the first way to study economic phenomena and connections.

For empirical analysis are characterized by the following features:

1. Collect facts;
2. Primary processing;
3. Description of data used.

The most important task of the empirical method is the initial collection of the necessary information in order to generalize, as well as using it for further theoretical analysis.

Empirical economic research is independent, but, nevertheless, is associated with the theoretical level of knowledge.

The theoretical approach studies the logical links between the objects under study and is another method of economic analysis.

Empirical analysis relies on theoretical knowledge.

Characteristic of empirical analysis:

• The object of the study is certain systems of economic relations.
• Focus - description of economic phenomena and processes.
• Research Methods - Observation, Data Measurement, Comparison, Experiment.

Characteristics of research methods.

Economic observation is a targeted perception of economic facts. In this case, the auditor notes economic facts, while actively affecting the observation object. These facts processed and meaningful are used in theoretical models and constructions.

The main requirements that observation must meet:

• Predictability;
• Spacery;
• Systemability;
• Selectivity;
• Dedication.

1. Economic dimension is the definition of quantitative values, object properties. This uses technical devices, as well as units of measurement. In this case, the use of mass produced machines corresponding to GOST, supporting official documents, or it may be necessary to create specialized devices and any other installations.

   This research method increases the accuracy of knowledge in the economy. The basis for this method, as the measurement - is metrology.

   Definition 1.

   Metrology is such a science that studies the method and measuring instruments.

   Economic dimension as a separate operation deepens the economic analysis, makes it possible to supplement the qualitative method in an economic study by the quantitative method, as well as increases the accuracy of economic knowledge.

   Economic experiment is a study of the economic phenomenon by active impact on it.

   Classification of experiments:

   • Depending on the industry of science - biological, chemical, social, etc.;
   • Depending on the objectives of the study - search, controlling, etc.;
   • Depending on the method of forming conditions - natural, artificial;
   • Depending on the organization of the experiment, laboratory, exit, production, etc.;
   • Depending on the type of models used - material, mental;
   • Depending on the nature of the analyzed objects - technological, sociometric and some other signs.

2. Comparison - This method establishes similarities and differences between objects. Comparison occurs if there are common characteristics from the analyzed objects, as well as on more important features.

The main form of scientific knowledge is scientific facts, aggregate of empirical generalizations, empirical laws and patterns; Concepts generalizing observed objects or phenomena.

An example is the statistical patterns of distribution. These patterns reflect the properties of economic phenomena.