Crucifixion (reconstruction of execution, as it could be in ancient Rome). Crucifixion (execution)

The godflower was in the course of Egyptians, Jews, Carthaginian, Phoenicians, Persians. In Macedonia, Greece and the Roman Empire, we are usually slaves, sometimes those responsible for particularly grave crimes in order to humiliate them.

The first executions on the cross are marked in Rome under Tarquinia magnificent, the last of the seven kings. This practice came to Rome from Carthaginians who adopted her from the Phillitsev. The Gim Senators and judges accused of "crime" for sentencing to the crucifixion of Roman citizens. Recall how Cicero was angrily reproached Versea, when he, being a governor in Sicily, sentenced to the Cross of the Roman citizen. It is believed that the Jews began to apply a crucifix during the reign of King Herod.

The cross could consist of two, three, sometimes even four crossbars and take the most different forms: T-shaped, X-shaped, y-shaped. The first variety is an inverted cross - allowed to cut a man down his head, so they executed the rebels. That was how Petra's apostle cured at his own request: he considered himself unworthy to be crucified as Christ. Emperor Nero satisfied his request, but refused to other martyrs.

According to individual historians, the practice of crucifixes down his head was born in purely technical reasons. "In the wet land, the cross had to stick deeply, so that the horizontal beam turned out to be close to Earth, and one of her ends, depending on where the cross was baptized, sharpened. So the maximum stability was achieved, and the victim cited heads down. "

The X-shaped cross was called the Cross of St. Andrew by the name of the martyr Andrei, the brother of the apostle Peter and the student of John the Baptist. When he found himself near the cross, he removed all his clothes and gave the executioner. He did not beat the arms and legs with nails, but tied them with ropes, so that the torture would last longer. He lived after crucifying two days.

In Rome, Greece and in the East sentenced to the crucifixion first beat the whip, and then they forced the cross to the place of execution. More precisely, he carried "Patibulum" (Patibulum) - the upper horizontal beam of the cross, while the "trunk" (STIPS) for the arrival of the sentence and executioner was already stuck out of the ground. Countlesspictures depicting the marchon the Calvar of Christ with a cross on the shoulders,distort the realities of that time.

At the site of the convicts of the convict tied ropes to the cross, but more often nailed with nails. In the first case, a person was bred by his hands, fucked them to patibulum, then with the help of a rope and block lifted up and fixed.

When the sentences were nailed, they acted as well: first they nailed their hands to the patibulum, then hung and nailed legs. It happened that the execution was nailed to the cross lying on the ground, then the cross was raised and inserted into a pre-prepared pit. Nails were never scored in the palm of her face - they would have broken under the severity of the body.

Nails robbed in wrists in two ways. The experimental executioner scored a long nail into the bones surrounded by the bones, which modern anatomas call the "skeleton space". The edge pierced it, without damaging the bones, except that breaking the median nerve, as a result of which the thumb was pressed against the palm. Less deft execution was limited to the fact that he was driven by a nail between radiation and elbow bones. But in both cases, the fastening turned out to be very durable.

Feet nailed in different ways. They could be attached, scoring a nail into each, impose one on another or breed to the sides with the so-called "quadrangular" crucifixion. For best reliability Fastening, nails, as a rule, nailed through a wooden washer.

Wooden washer (Restoration of archaeological excavations)

In the Roman Empire, there was a special way when the legs coated together were located sideways, so the nail broke both heels, which was why the convict twisted the whole body.

In any case, whateverfeeding method, no support forfeet so often depicted on relgiotinal paintings, there was no misery.

Such a support would contradict the sense of execution. After all, they died on the cross not from hunger and thirst, as many people think, and not from the loss of blood, but from suffocation. Crash could breathe only if it was raised in his arms, but nails caused him a strong pain, the muscles reduced a convulsion, and he could not exhale the air that filled chest. This phenomenon is marked and very accurately described by the surviving prisoners of concentration camps, present during crucifixes. To enhance asphyxia to the legs of the most stronger crucifiers, tied heavy stones to ensure complete immobility of the hands and deprive a person to breathe.

In antiquity, only Jews soften the execution: at sunset crucified legs with a foot to speed up asphyxia. The Jewish law demanded to bring a convicted drink, blunting sensitivity to pain. Recall that Christ offered such a drink: Wine with opiate before crucifixion and vinegar after crucifixion.

The bodies of the executed hung on the crosses until the vultures were flown to them.

The bodies of the rebel hung to a complete decomposition. So happened after each "slaves' war" - three major uprisings, with difficulty suppressed Rome. The victory followed a terrible slaughter and thousands of crucifixes. The first two rebellion broke out in Sicily, respectively, for a half and a century to the Christian era. After the third - the most famous - under the leadership of Spartacus in 73 to the new era, more than six thousand rebels were sentenced to crucifixion. Crosses stood along the whole road from Kapui to Rome.

When the sentence was "legal", as, for example, in court above Christ, the authorities allowed relatives and friends of executed to give him the last debt after the official statement of death. The blow of a spear in the side, according to Roman law, served as a confirmation of the coming death. Contrary to popular belief, this blow never finished crucified and did not strengthen his sufferings.

The greatest tribute to this instrument of execution paid not the rebels slaves, buttermists and dangerous criminals, but Christians. For three hundred years after the apostles on the cross, many Christians were crucified, who did not want to renounce the new faith. Under the Emperor, Holy Simeon crucified in Jerusalem. Holy Yulia crucified in Carthage. People are crowded in all Mediterranean countries.

Recall Nero, who enjoyed the wake of the victims of the resin to add to the sufferings on the cross torture by fire. Convicted Roman magistrates on the crucifixion often tried to execution. All modern history researchers ancient Mira You are united that the number of victims during the reign of septima of harsh, Karakalla, Helichabala, maximin and especially Diocletian, the deution and Domitian was huge. With the arrival of Christian emperors, the crucifix was abolished in memory of the passions of Christ. Since then, the symbol of the cross acquired a cult character, both in Greek and in Latin liturgies. The cross and crucifixion took an important place in Catholic rituals and ceremonies. The cross, the once former execution gun, became a symbol of the resurrection.

The use of crucifixions to criminals in Europe began to be perceived as blasphemy, but in Asia and in the east, this execution method remained. The French writer and traveler Jean-Pierre Oscar Cometan in the book "Unknown Civilization" writes that in the XIX century in Japan, "the judges still sentenced to crucifixion." I must say that Europe, despite all its Christianity, more than once, returned to the barbaric practice of crucifixion.

Clause cases were noted during the Vandyskaya War at the end of the 18th century in France: so the republican soldiers were received, causing residents of Mashkul and Saint-Flore cities that gave a signal to the uprising in 1793. People have painted in Spain during the Napoleonic campaign.

In the USSR, the Nazis executed on the cross of the partisans and the Jews. Italian writer Kuritsio Malapart in his famous novel "Skura" talks about a meeting with crucified on the cross. "A scream of horror stuck in my throat. These were crucified people. They were nailed to the trunks of the trees. Someone dropped his head on the shoulders, someone on the chest, someone raised his eyes to the sky, looking at the young month. Almost everyone was in black Jewish rascoats on a naked body, their leather glitter in the soft moonlight ... ". "Crucified silent, I heard their breath. I heard a deaf wheeled out of the throat, felt hard glances, their eyes burned my face, filled with tears, dripping on the chest ... ". "If there is a pity in you, kill me! He headed me, - shouted one of the crucified. - Shot to me in the head, it is silent! Kill me, oh-oh, kill me out of love for the Lord! "

At the end of the XIX century, the crucifix still existed in Burma and North Africa, in particular in Morocco. In 1892, that is, two years after the Moroccans sentenced to the death penalty were "processing" in the United States, making them on an electric chair, the public was gathered at a large square in Marrakesh to press Caida Habura. This execution to the music became a reason for the three-day festivities, after which the corpse was broken into small pieces and threw the dogs. In conclusion, we add that until the 80s of the twentieth century, the crucifixion appeared in the Criminal Code of Northern Yemen as a legitimate form of the highest penalties. However, it is worth noting that the sentence could only be crucified after it is executed according to the verdict - through the execution or cut off the head.

In Sudan, everything was different: the crucifixion was provided for Hadda crimes, that is, against God.

At least, until the 90s of the twentieth century, in six countries living under the laws of Islam, it was possible on the legitimate basis to execute people on the cross, pick up them alive. We are talking about Sudan, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Mauritania, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia.

Literature:

M. Sonaye. The death penalty. The history and types of the highest penalties from the beginning of time to the present day. Translation from French.- M.: ID "Fluid", 2008

CRUCIFIXION

Thanks to the huge resonance, which had events in the next century, which occurred on Calvary almost 2 thousand years ago, few people know that the crucifixion on the cross in ancient times was perhaps one of the most common methods of legend of death. They used, for example, Assyrians, Carthaginians, Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Phoenicians, Scythians, and of course Romans, who at the insistence of Jewish high priests crucified Jesus Christ.

The most common way of crucifixion, although there were many types of varieties, was that the hands of the sacrifice were tied or nailed to the post to the post (with a cross or without it), where a person and died a painful death. Despite the widespread dissemination of this type of death, very few and not enough detailed descriptions of the crucifixion on the cross. Truly a description of the Crucifixions of Christ contained in the Gospels - one of the best of all existing ones.

Before the execution of the convict usually sequels (however, the Romans have preceded any death penalty), after which, if they were going to use a transverse beam, convicteded forced to carry it to the place of execution, where the pillar was already stood in the land. He usually stood by the road so that as many people could see the crucified body. The convict was undressed, forced to lie on the ground face up and spread his hands, after which the executioner nailed or tied his hands to the cross. Sometimes it was also done that, since the nailed hands could not withstand the weights of the body and tear off from the transverse beam. The cross beam with the victim hanging on it was raised to the top of the pillar. Again, that the convict did not break down, a wooden peg scored between his legs to the post. Cooking ended with the feeding of the victim's feet to the post, and in such a state of convicts, it was necessary to die for a long and painful death, which they tried to make even more painful surrounding the place of execution of a crowd and executioner. He was interrupted by the legs, rushed the skin, threw stones. In the case of Christ, the executioner showed the top of the ingenuity, waters the crown on his head on his head.

It happened, the victim was not usually nailed, as described above, and for example, down her head or arm and head. Joseph Flavius \u200b\u200bdescribes the mass execution of Jews by the Romans: "those whom they caught, the Romans were nailed, jokes for the sake of the most ridiculous positions."

As a punishment for grave crimes, such as state treason, desertion from the army, murder, incitement to meat, progress (especially in cases where it was about the future of the emperor), the crucifixion on the Cross of the Romans preferred, for example, burn on the fireor decoration.Initially, on the cross, the slaves and ingenians were painted (for example, captive enemy soldiers), later they began to resort to the crucifixion, if a serious crime was committed by Roman citizens from the lowest classes. A completely vice versa belonged to the crucifixion of the Carthagean and Persians, in which it was considered honorable, and on the cross, as a rule, high-ranking dies and military leaders were dying.

Voluntary crucifixion

In New Mexico, there are cases when swinging sinners forced themselves to tie themselves to a huge wooden cross and fiber him on the ground, dyed with sharp stones and glass fragments. In addition, a sharp knife tied to the hand of a self-spinner, so that he dug into the flesh every time the sinner stumbled or fell.

Crucifixion of Christ

The next passage is compiled selectively on the basis of gospel texts.

Two days later there was an Easter holiday and were looking for high priests, as if to take him cunning and kill. But they said: only not on the holiday so that no indignation occurs in the people. When one of the twelve (students), called Judas Iskariot, went to the high priests and told them: "What do you give me, and I will give you it?" They offered him thirty silventmen. And since that time he was looking for a convenient occasion to betray it.

When the disciples prepared Easter and came evening, he was breathless with twelve students. And when they ate, Jesus said: "True say that one of you betray me." They were very saddened and began to talk to him: "Not I, Lord?" With Sez Judas, who indulges him, said: "Is I not, Rabbi?" And Jesus told him: "You said." And when they ate, Jesus took bread and, blessing, prevented and, distributing his students, said: "Take, eat: this is my body." And, taking a bowl and thanks, he filed them and said: "This is my blood."

And they went to Mount Eleon. Then he says Jesus: "Everyone you will seduce about me on this night." Peter said to him in response "if and everyone will be seduced about you, I will never be seduced." Jesus said to him: "True telling you that you are on this night, before the rooster is retailed, they will donate from me three times."

Then comes with them Jesus in place, called Gethsemane, and says to the disciples: "Sit here until I go, perpetary there." When he prayed and comes to the disciples, he finds them with sleeping and says: "Stand up, let's go: here is approaching me." And when he also spoke, here, Judah, one of the twelve came and with him many people with swords and stakes from the high priests and elders of folk. Induating him gave them a sign, saying: "Whom I a kiss, he is, take it," and immediately approached Jesus, saying: "Rejoice, Rabbi!" And kissed him. Jesus said: "Friend, why did you come?" And here is one of the former with Jesus, stretched out his hand, removed his sword and, hitting the slave of the high priests, compartment to him ear. Then Jesus told him: "I return your sword in his place, for everyone who took the sword, the sword will die."

Ascending Jesus took him to Caiafe, the high priest. Peter also followed him from published to the court of High Priest: and entered the inside, sat down with the ministers to see the end. And one maid came to him and said: "And you were with Jesus Galileanin." But he renounced before everyone, saying: "I don't know what you are saying." And shouted the rooster. When he went out of the gate, he saw his other and says formerly: "And this was with Jesus Nature." And he again renounced the oath, which does not know this man. " And for the second time shouted the rooster. A little later came the standing there and said Peter: "Exactly and you are of them, for and your speech gives you." Then he began to swear and to go that he did not know this man; And again fell rooster. And Peter remembered the Word, said to him by Jesus, and Won Won, Gorky cried.

The high priests and elders were looking for perjury against Jesus to betray his death, and did not find it. But finally came two false witnesses and said: "He said:" I can destroy the temple of God and create it three days. " Jesus was silent and the high priest said to him: "Tell us, are you Christ, the Son of God?" "You said," Jesus replied, and the high priest was driving his clothes and said: "Now you have heard the blasphemy of him, as you think?" And, taking him, took and betrayed him by Pilat, the ruler. And when he was accused of his high priests and elders, he answered nothing. Then the Pilate spoke him: "Are you king Judean?" Jesus told him: "You say." Pilate said to the high priests and the people: "I do not find any guilt in this person." But they all shouted: "Cutting, cut it!" Pilate, seeing that nothing helps, but confusion increases, took the water and washed his hands before the people and said: "I'm innocent in the blood of the righteous of this; See you. "

And they dressed him in the bugger and, shovels a thorns, laid on him. And they began to welcome him: "Rejoice, Tsar Judaian!" When they were racing over him, they removed the bugger from him, dressed him in their own clothes and led to crucify it.

And led him to the place of Calvary and gave him to drink wine with Smirnoy, but he did not accept. And they crucified him and shared his clothes, throwing lot, whom to take. And he was the inscription of his "Tsar Jewish". With him crucified two robbers, one right, and the other on the left side of it. One of the hanged villains gloomped him and said: "If you are Christ, save yourself and us." The other opposite was thrown and said: "Or are you not afraid of God, when and sentenced to the same?" And Jesus said: "Remember me, Lord, when you come to your kingdom."

In the sixth hour came darkness throughout the land. In the ninth hour, Jesus climbed a loud voice: "My God, my God! Why did you leave me? " One of those standing here ran, filled with a sponge of vinegar and, imposing a cane, gave him to drink. Jesus, lengthening loudly, emptied the spirit. Then came the warriors, and the first were killed, and the other, crucified with him. But, come to Jesus, they saw him already dead, did not kill his heads from him. But one of the warriors pierced his ribs.

After this Joseph from Arimafia, he asked Pilate to remove the body of Jesus; And Pilate allowed. He went and removed the body of Jesus. It also came to Nicodemus and brought the composition from Smyrna and Aloia. And so they took the body of Jesus and wrapped him with pellets with incense. And put his Joseph in his new coffin, which he carved in a rock; And breathing a large stone to the door of the coffin, retired.

Crucifixion is one of the most cruel shapes of the execution. When we read ancient sources, it is difficult to distinguish the practice of crucifixes from other similar punishments, like planting on count.
The Romans borrowed this kind of execution from their neighbors and most often used it in the province, mainly to intimidate their subjects and prevent rebounds. It is unlikely that the Romans could imagine that the execution of a modest Jew on a distant outskirts of the empire will make a crucifixion symbol.

10. Crucifixes in Persia

Many ancient rulers used a crucifix to show their subjects, which they should not do. During the rule of the Persian Tsar Daria I (G. 522-486 BC) The city of Babylon expelled the Persian rulers and rebelled against them (522-521 BC). Darius made a campaign on Babylon and took the city in the siege. The city was defended for 19 months until the Persians broke through the defense and did not break into the city. Herodotus in his "stories" reports that Darius destroyed the walls of the city and the snow all his gates. The city was returned to Babylonians, but Darius decided to warn citizens from the riots and ordered the crucifier of 3,000 people from among the most high-ranking inhabitants of the city.

9. Crucifixes in Greece

In 332 BC Alexander the Great seized the Phoenician city of Tir, which Persians were used as a base for his fleet. The city was taken after a long siege, which lasted from January to July. After the army of Alexander broke through the defense, the army of the tires was broken and, according to some ancient sources, about 6,000 people died that day. The ancient Roman authors diodor and Quint Kurzi, referring to Greek sources, report that after the victory, Alexander ordered the 2000 young men from among the citizens, setting the crucifixion along the entire sea coast.

8. Crucifixes in Rome

In accordance with the Roman law, the crucifix was not a generally accepted form of the death penalty, it was used only at certain cases. Slaves could only be for robbing or rebellion. Roman citizens were originally sentenced to crucifixion, unless they were found guilty of state treason. Nevertheless, in later imperial times, ordinary citizens could be crucified for individual crimes. In the provinces of the Romans used the crucifix to punish the so-called "unprofitable" people who were convicted of robbery and other crimes (Metsger and Kugan, 1993, p. 141-142).

7. Rettake of Spartak

Spartak, Roman slave of Thracian origin, ran away from the school of gladiators in Kapuye in 73 BC. And 78 more slaves fled to him. Spartak and his people, taking advantage of hatred for super-long members of the Roman society and to his social injustice, attracted thousands of other slaves and poor people in their ranks from all over the country. In the end, Spartak created an army that opposed Rome military car for two years. The Roman warlord of Crassus suppressed the uprising, finishing the war by one of the most famous cases of mass crucifixion in Roman history. Spartak was killed, and his people fell by fighting for life. More than 6,000 surviving slaves were crucified along the Appia Road, leading from Rome to the Capo.

6. Crucifixion in the Jewish tradition

Although the Jewish Bible is the practice of crucifixion and not referred to as the Jewish form of punishment, in broadcasting (21.22-23) there are lines: "If there is a crime, worthy of death, and he will be dead, and you hang it on the tree, then his body is not It should sleep on the tree, but they grab it on the same day. " In the ancient Rabbiana literature (Mishena, Sanhedrin 6.4), it was interpreted as a body's deployment after a person is executed. But this point of view contradicts what is written in the ancient "Kumranian manuscripts" (64.8), which states that the Israelite, which makes state treason, should be hanged so that he died. In Jewish history there are records about the number of victims of the crucifixion. The most noticeable of them reports the Hebrew Writer Joseph Flavius \u200b\u200b("Ancient times", 13.14): Tsar Judaian Alexander Yangnai (126-76 BC) crucified 800 Jews - his political opponents who were found guilty of state treason.

5. Location of nails

The idea that the palm of the victims nailed to the crucifixion of nails is dominant in those pictures and sculptures that depict the crucifixion of Jesus. But today we already know that the palms with the nails driven in them are not able to withstand the weight of the body and, most likely, nails will break through the flesh between the fingers. Therefore, it is likely that the upper limbs of the victims tied to the crossbar of the rods, and this provided basic support. But there is a simpler decision. Nails could be drunk between the elbows and the wrists, and not in the palm. The dice and the wrist tendons are strong enough to withstand the body weight. But there is a problem with the holes near the wrists: this is contrary to the description of the injuries of Jesus in the Gospels. For example, in the Gospel of John 24:39, it is said that Jesus had a well-shifted palm. Most scientists are trying to explain this contradiction with the help of boring and predictable claims for errors when translating. The reality is that none of the authors of the Gospel was directly witnessing events. The earliest of the Gospels, the Gospel of Mark, refers to 60-70 g. AD, when after the crucifixion of Jesus has already changed the whole generation, so we should not expect a high degree of accuracy in such details.

4. Roman Crashing Method

The standard method of crucifixion did not exist. The most common way in the Roman world was first to bind a convicted to the transverse beam. Literary sources indicate that the convicted person is not the entire cross, he had to carry only a cross beam to the place of crucifixion, and the pillars covered in Earth were reused for numerous executions. It was both practical and cost effective. According to the Hebrew historian Joseph, in the I-m century of our era in Jerusalem and its surrounding the wood was a scarce goods. Then the convict was undressed and attached a beam to the pole with nails and ropes. The beam on the ropes pulled up until the legs were convicted from the ground. Sometimes after that, the legs were associated or nailed. If the convict suffered too long, the executioners could break his legs to speed up death. In the Gospel of John (19.33-34), it is mentioned that the Roman soldier pierced the side of Jesus a spear when he was on the cross - this practice guaranteed death.

3. Causes of death

In some cases, the convicted could die even at the stage of the flange, especially if the vacuums with bone or lead tips were used. If the crucifixion occurred on a hot day, the loss of fluid from the sweating in combination with the loss of blood from the flange and injuries could lead to death from the hypovolemic shock. If the execution happened on a cold day, a convict may die of supercooling. But the main causes of death were not injuries from nails and not bleeding. The position of the body during the crucifixion provided a gradual and painful asphyxia process. Interrochemical muscles and diaphragms participating in the process of breathing gradually tired and started to weaken. Given the duration of the execution, after some time the victim was simply unable to breathe. Fracture of the leg was a way to accelerate this process.

2. Medical expert data

Analysis of the bones of a crucial victim, published in the Israeli magazine "Exploration Journal", showed a method of crucifix, which is rarely displayed in the pictures or is mentioned in literary sources. Bone injuries have shown that at the same time, heel bones were nailed. The researchers suggest that instead of the traditional position of the legs, which we see on many images of the crucifix, "the feet of the victim were attached to the vertical pillar of the cross, one with each of the sides, and their heel bones were made by the nail. The results of this study also explain why sometimes the remains of crucifix victims with nails are found. Apparently, relatives of the executed understood that it was impossible to remove nails, which were usually bent due to shocks, without destroying the heel bone. "This reluctance to cause further damage to the heel led [to his burial with nail in the bone, and this, in turn, led] to the possibility of opening the method of crucifixion."

1. The abolition of crucifixion by Emperor Konstantin

Christianity in the Roman Empire has undergone an amazing transformation. It originated as a branch from the Jewish religion, turned into an illegal cult, achieved tolerance towards himself, turned into religion sponsored by the state and, finally, became the main religion of the late Roman Empire. Roman emperor Konstantin Great (272-337 AD) in 313 AD. The Milan Edict proclaimed tolerance to the Christian faith and providing Christians all legal rights. This decisive step has been helped by Christianity to become the official state religion of the Roman Empire. After the centuries of the application of the crucifixion as torture and execution in 337, Emperor Konstantin abolished him, motivating this by the reverence of Jesus Christ.

A.I.Rakitin, 2009.

"Mysterious crimes of the past", 2009

Anyone, at least once in the life of the happening in the Christian temple, it is well known what is meant by the concept of "crucifix." Meanwhile, the classic view of the Christian crucifix depicting the Savior on the Cross is not only very conditional, but also directly inappropriate historical truth. Of course, in the sacred symbol it is pointless (and no need) to look for accuracy of the historical document, but the more interesting from the point of view of the person of the 21st century to figure out what exactly was the crucifixion as a way of execution?

Under the crucifixion in the present essay will be understood to strengthen the person sentenced to death on a vertically standing surface in order to interrupt his life long static exposure Fracture force. It is this, a somewhat cored definition at first glance, as it is impossible to more accurately convey the essence of this very unusual execution.

"The most terrible of all executions that people came up with" - so spoke about the crucifixion of Cicero. This monstrous execution appeared in Malaya Asia and in the days of Greek-Persian wars became known to the Greeks. We know that Alexander Macedonian ordered a crucifier on the doctor's cross, who was unable to save his life to Hephaestion. Much later - in 166 BC - The governor of Seleucidov in Jerusalem's Poset Resit ordered to execute through the crucifixion of the Greek Casolow, Heretics and Correction.

Already from the Greeks, the crucifix was known to the Romans. The emergency painfulness of death on the cross made it a favorite way of execution of slaves. Known by Satire Juvenal, in which the author mocks the Roman Matron (a female noble title), who decided to cut a slave on his own whim.

In view of the characteristics of the execution (this will be written below), the Romans did not cope with the sentenced to death within the urban trail. Common sense and developed ideas about public hygiene did not allow them to leave a large number of decomposing corpses in the locations of people. Therefore, the place for crucifixes, referred to in Latin Sestertium, was made away from the walls of Rome and was placed in the forest. It is known that a special executioner intended for the city authorities only for the crucifixion of people lived next to this place. He did not remove the bodies from the crosses (the Romans had no tradition to remove the body of crucified), but was engaged in the fact that he performed sentences against suicide bonuses and prepared places for new crucifixes. In sestertium "e, apparently, at the same time was a large number of crucified bodies; Their score may have walked for hundreds or even thousands. It is even difficult to imagine the real frequency from the bodies of varying degrees of decomposition on the crosses of all sorts of species. It was a kind of cemetery, only the corpses in it were not hidden in the ground, but at the bottom of the way ... A huge number of birds were fed by human remains, surprisingly even how this Hollywood still did not use Sestertium in his crafts; Such a video, I think, would shook the imagination of modern spectators.

Romans widely used crucifixes as a means of execution of rebels. Here is a couple of quotes: "Soldiers in their fierce and hatred have naught prisoners for ridicule in a wide variety of directions and a variety of poses. The number of crucified before that increased that there was a lack of space for crosses and lack of crosses for tel. (...) after preliminary scissal and all kinds of torture they were crucified (defenders - approx. Murders Site) walls. Titon Although it was sorry for these unfortunate, who were given five hundred people every day, and sometimes more, but on the other hand, he considered dangerous to let go of people taken in dangerous Failure by force (...) "(Joseph Flavius." Jewish War ", KN. 5, Ch. 11); "The prisoners were mercilessly crucified, and in general the uprising was strangled with unheard of before the number of executions" (T. Mommesen. "History of Rome", KN.5, Ch. 1). In the first case, we are talking about an uprising in the Roman province of Judea, in the second - about the uprising of Spartacus.

Of course, the Romans knew what they did. They could well cut off the captives of the head or, say, hang them. But they preferred crucifixes to all other species of execution primarily because of the enormous strength of his psychovimizual impact. The slave, who saw another slave on the cross, will never raise uprisings - probably so reasoned the Roman military chairs, sanctioning the mass executions of the prisoners by crucifixion.

Romans crucified suicide bumps on intersecting wooden barsnamed "crosses". There were three main types of crosses: "Tau"--like (T), "ex"--like (x) and, sorry for tautology, "cruciform" (+). The crosses were made relatively small size, in any case, much less of what they are depicted on icons or in the wall paintings of Christian churches. The overwhelming majority of Roman crosses had a length of about 3.3 m., Only some reached 3.7 m. If we consider that part of the cross went into the ground during installation, and the upper crossbar was completely attached at the very top of the pillar (except T-shaped crosses) , It turns out that the legs of the suicide have been just 0.5-0.8 m. From the soil. The crosses did not have supports under the feet, which can sometimes be seen on Catholic crucifixes; Summer legs turned in such a way that the feet would fit it to the vertical surface. The suicide bomb was not located on the cross head up, generally speaking, the position of his body could be arbitrary, up to the fact that he was nailed down. The Roman law did not protect the right of sentenced to die according to the arranged regulations and in any way otherwise.

It is known that the condemned on the execution of the Romans used to expose the flagships of the flagships (the lead or bone trays in the ends of which were woven). Known "Flags" from 1, 2 or 3 ends, a large number of them found during the excavations of Pompey and Herculaneum. The blow left the skin to 4 cm long dissecting a length of up to 4 cm. It is believed that the number of shocks "flag" did not exceed 39 ("forty without one"), because from a greater number of them, the sentence could die ahead of time, but this rule was most likely not respected Very strict. On the Turin Corporation, for example, you can see a large number of damage to the skin left by the strikes "flagship" (attempts were made to count the number of shocks obtained by the man wrapped in a shroud. It is believed that he was inflicted 57 strikes with a 3-tail "flag" and 21 - 1-tail. It is possible to doubt the accuracy of the calculation, but in any case it should be recognized that the total number of shocks suffered by a suicide exceeded 39). Only after the death bullshit, the Romans began to strengthen his body on the cross.

How was the cutting practically? In two ways, the choice between which remained behind the bill.

The first: Squader was laid on the assembled cross, located horizontally, nodded his arms and legs, after which the cross was installed vertically. During such manipulations, the person experienced the most severe torment due to the permanent concussion.

The second: the assembled cross was installed vertically and only after that a suicide born to him.

In which parts of the body, the executioner scored nails? The question seems strange, since everyone is beautifully known for the form of a traditional crucifix, used in the Christian religion as an image of the executed on the Cross of Christ. From consideration of such a crucifixion, it can be concluded that the nails were clogged in the palm of the suicide. Meanwhile, even the simplest reflection on the physical side of the process suggests that the real crucifixion could not be implemented in a similar way. The flesh of human palms is thin and soft, it relatively easily skeins and breaks through, and therefore the massive body can not be kept on the weight of only two nails, driven into the palm - iron simply breaks the flesh.

The circumstance is seriously embarrassed by both the anatomical doctors and artists who put the task naturally to portray the crucifixion. The first reliably known attempt to reconstruct the genuine crucifixion was carried out in 1801 in the UK. Then the Royal Academy of Arts bought the corpse of the hanged killer James Leggy at the hospital, where he was commissioned for anatomical experiences, and in the presence of members of the Academy - sculptors and artists - it was carried out by a crucifixion on the cross. Making sure that the body cannot hang while being brought to the cross through the palms, the British were forced to resort to the help of the rods that they pulled the elbows to the transverse crossbar.

Much later, Dr. Pierre Barbe was engaged in the reconstruction of the execution on the cross, the doctor from the Hospital of St. Joseph in Paris, who was passionate about the study of the Turin District. In the 1930s. He spent about 40 experiments on corpses and individual human limbs, during which they proved that human body It can not be kept vertically on the cross in case of clogging of nails in the palm of palm. According to Barba, the executioners had to score nails only as it can be seen on the Turin Dospanice - to the place of convergence of radiation and elbow bones at the wrist, called the anatoms of the "spot of the destunta". The discovery of Pierre Barbe was made as one of the evidence of the authenticity of the Christian relic.

Since I had to mention the Turin milkovitsa, we add that the issue of its authenticity has several significant aspects. One of these essential aspects is that it is necessary to prove its true authenticity in comparison with other "genuine" vessels. The fact is that in the Middle Ages of Catholics, due to their church of mercantility and the desire to extract the practical benefit from the Christian idea, they poned a huge number of "genuine plants"; Historical legends retained the mention of more than hundreds of such artifacts scattered in the cathedrals of Western Europe. Without understanding, Catholics are rudely devalued, devalued the idea of \u200b\u200breverence of holy relics. It is enough to say that even now - in 2007 - in Western Europe, Catholics persist and revered "genuine" 26 points (for example, in Besanson, Xabregas, Chamice, Turin, and other places), in addition, 2 " Genuine "bowls of Joseph Arimafi (T.N. Grail), and a thorns wreath, who was allegedly placed on the head of the Savior, currently having a single barrels - over the past centuries they were all broken and sold or donated" to retail. " By the way, attempts to count the number of "spikes separated by the world" gives a number of more than 300 (!). There is no such number of spines even grows on the whole bush of the thorn. True, the sake of objectivity should be recognized that in the new era, the Catholic Church ceased to insist on the fact that the shroud available at its disposal is genuine artifacts. The current point of view of the Vatican on these relics is reduced to the fact that they are considered "icons" on the fabric, i.e. Images designed to awaken religious feelings, and are not at all authenticated those shields, in which the body of the Savior of our Jesus Christ was cooked.

Pierre Barbe considered proven that the nails were not scored in the palm of his face, but at the place of forearm immediately behind the wrist. His studies were given and another unexpected result: the fact is that a large nerve passes through the "stain of the destroy", transmitting pulses to the fingers of the hand, and the clogged nail inevitably had to hurt this nerve. And in this case, the thumb with reflexively wrapped in the palm of her hand, the remaining fingers remained straight. A similar bending of the thumb to the center of the palm was observed in the dead after even a few days after death, and therefore, the more such a phenomenon of D.B. Manifest people.

It is noteworthy that some icons dated to the end 12 - the beginning of the 14th centuries, depict a crucified Savior just with nails in the wrists and naught to the palms with thumbs. At later icons, the tradition of such a crucifixion disappears. An explanation of this curious fact may be one thing: European icon painters of the 13th century could see crucified people during crusades and traveling to Palestine captured by the Crusaders; Arabs sometimes crucified captive Christians and future artists anatomically reproduced what they saw with their own eyes. Later, information about the observations made was forgotten and the crucifix had acquired their canonical, but not corresponding to reality.

Such was the version of Pierre Barbe, based on indirect considerations and experiments over the dead. For a long time, she did not find confirmation, since the archeology did not have a single skeleton of a crucifier. But in June 1968, the finds were made in Jerusalem, which allowed for the first time to accurately reconstruct a way of execution through the crucifix.

The Romans borrowed this kind of execution from their neighbors and most often used it in the province, mainly to intimidate their subjects and prevent rebounds. It is unlikely that the Romans could imagine that the execution of a modest Jew on a distant outskirts of the empire will make a crucifixion symbol.

10. Crucifixes in Persia

Darius made a campaign on Babylon and took the city in the siege. The city was defended for 19 months until the Persians broke through the defense and did not break into the city. Herodotus in his "stories" reports that Darius destroyed the walls of the city and the snow all his gates. The city was returned to Babylonians, but Darius decided to warn citizens from the riots and ordered the crucifier of 3,000 people from among the most high-ranking inhabitants of the city.

9. Crucifixes in Greece

In 332 BC Alexander the Great seized the Phoenician city of Tir, which Persians were used as a base for his fleet. The city was taken after a long siege, which lasted from January to July.

After the army of Alexander broke through the defense, the army of the tires was broken and, according to some ancient sources, about 6,000 people died that day. The ancient Roman authors diodor and Quint Kurzi, referring to Greek sources, report that after the victory, Alexander ordered the 2000 young men from among the citizens, setting the crucifixion along the entire sea coast.

8. Crucifixes in Rome

In accordance with the Roman law, the crucifix was not a generally accepted form of the death penalty, it was used only at certain cases. Slaves could only be for robbing or rebellion.

Roman citizens were originally sentenced to crucifixion, unless they were found guilty of state treason. Nevertheless, in later imperial times, ordinary citizens could be crucified for individual crimes. In the provinces of the Romans used the crucifix to punish the so-called "unprofitable" people who were convicted of robbery and other crimes (Metsger and Kugan, 1993, p. 141-142).

7. Rettake of Spartak

Spartak, Roman slave of Thracian origin, ran away from the school of gladiators in Kapuye in 73 BC. And 78 more slaves fled to him. Spartak and his people, taking advantage of hatred for super-long members of the Roman society and to his social injustice, attracted thousands of other slaves and poor people in their ranks from all over the country. In the end, Spartak created an army that opposed Rome military car for two years.

The Roman warlord of Crassus suppressed the uprising, finishing the war by one of the most famous cases of mass crucifixion in Roman history. Spartak was killed, and his people fell by fighting for life. More than 6,000 surviving slaves were crucified along the Appia Road, leading from Rome to the Capo.

6. Crucifixion in the Jewish tradition

In the ancient Rabbiana literature (Mishena, Sanhedrin 6.4), it was interpreted as a body's deployment after a person is executed. But this point of view contradicts what is written in the ancient "Kumranian manuscripts" (64.8), which states that the Israelite, which makes state treason, should be hanged so that he died.

In Jewish history there are records about the number of victims of the crucifixion. The most noticeable of them reports the Hebrew Writer Joseph Flavius \u200b\u200b("Ancient times", 13.14): Tsar Judaian Alexander Yangnai (126-76 BC) crucified 800 Jews - his political opponents who were found guilty of state treason.

5. Location of nails

The idea that the palm of the victims nailed to the crucifixion of nails is dominant in those pictures and sculptures that depict the crucifixion of Jesus. But today we already know that the palms with the nails driven in them are not able to withstand the weight of the body and, most likely, nails will break through the flesh between the fingers.

Therefore, it is likely that the upper limbs of the victims tied to the crossbar of the rods, and this provided basic support. But there is a simpler decision. Nails could be drunk between the elbows and the wrists, and not in the palm. The dice and the wrist tendons are strong enough to withstand the body weight.

But there is a problem with the holes near the wrists: this is contrary to the description of the injuries of Jesus in the Gospels. For example, in the Gospel of John 24:39, it is said that Jesus had a well-shifted palm. Most scientists are trying to explain this contradiction with the help of boring and predictable claims for errors when translating.

The reality is that none of the authors of the Gospel was directly witnessing events. The earliest of the Gospels, the Gospel of Mark, refers to 60-70 g. AD, when after the crucifixion of Jesus has already changed the whole generation, so we should not expect a high degree of accuracy in such details.

4. Roman Crashing Method

The standard method of crucifixion did not exist. The most common way in the Roman world was first to bind a convicted to the transverse beam. Literary sources indicate that the convicted person is not the entire cross, he had to carry only a cross beam to the place of crucifixion, and the pillars covered in Earth were reused for numerous executions.

It was both practical and cost effective. According to the Hebrew historian Joseph, in the first century of our era in Jerusalem and its surrounding the wood was a scarce goods.

Then the convict was undressed and attached a beam to the pole with nails and ropes. The beam on the ropes pulled up until the legs were convicted from the ground. Sometimes after that, the legs were associated or nailed.

If the convict suffered too long, the executioners could break his legs to speed up death. In the Gospel of John (19.33-34), it is mentioned that the Roman soldier pierced the side of Jesus a spear when he was on the cross - this practice guaranteed death.

3. Causes of death

In some cases, the convicted could die even at the stage of the flange, especially if the vacuums with bone or lead tips were used. If the crucifixion occurred on a hot day, the loss of fluid from the sweating in combination with the loss of blood from the flange and injuries could lead to death from the hypovolemic shock. If the execution happened on a cold day, a convict may die of supercooling.

But the main causes of death were not injuries from nails and not bleeding. The position of the body during the crucifixion provided a gradual and painful asphyxia process. Interrochemical muscles and diaphragms participating in the process of breathing gradually tired and started to weaken. Given the duration of the execution, after some time the victim was simply unable to breathe. Fracture of the leg was a way to accelerate this process.

2. Medical expert data

Analysis of the bones of a crucial victim, published in the Israeli magazine "Exploration Journal", showed a method of crucifix, which is rarely displayed in the pictures or is mentioned in literary sources. Bone injuries have shown that at the same time, heel bones were nailed.

The researchers suggest that instead of the traditional position of the legs, which we see on many images of the crucifix, "the feet of the victim were attached to the vertical pillar of the cross, one with each of the sides, and their heel bones were made by the nail.

The results of this study also explain why sometimes the remains of crucifix victims with nails are found. Apparently, relatives of the executed understood that it was impossible to remove nails, which were usually bent due to shocks, without destroying the heel bone. "This reluctance to cause further damage to the heel led [to his burial with nail in the bone, and this, in turn, led] to the possibility of opening the method of crucifixion."

1. The abolition of crucifixion by Emperor Konstantin

Christianity in the Roman Empire has undergone an amazing transformation. It originated as a branch from the Jewish religion, turned into an illegal cult, achieved tolerance towards himself, turned into religion sponsored by the state and, finally, became the main religion of the late Roman Empire.

Roman emperor Konstantin Great (272-337 AD) in 313 AD. The Milan Edict proclaimed tolerance to the Christian faith and providing Christians all legal rights. This decisive step has been helped by Christianity to become the official state religion of the Roman Empire.

After the centuries of the application of the crucifixion as torture and execution in 337, Emperor Konstantin abolished him, motivating this by the reverence of Jesus Christ.

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