Embalming the deceased with knowledge of the structure of the human body. Embalming and the accumulation of knowledge about the structure of the human body

The culture of Ancient Egypt left a deep mark on the history of world culture. The ancient Greeks and Romans, as well as the peoples of the Middle East and Africa, learned a lot from the literature, art and science of Egypt.

Along with mathematical, astronomical, geographical knowledge, the ancient Egyptians possessed knowledge in the field of medicine. Healing techniques originated in Egypt 4000 BC. NS. Medicine in Egypt was in the hands of the priests. Doctors in Egypt enjoyed a high reputation. Gradually, with the accumulation of experience over 2000 BC. NS. in Egypt, a fairly large medical specialization has developed. The Egyptians had surgeons, internists; Among the surgeons, there were different doctors who dealt with eye operations, treatment and filling of teeth.

Already during the period of the so-called ancient kingdom (III millennium BC), the Egyptians achieved significant advances in medicine.

The sources of our information about medicine in Egypt, as well as about ancient Egyptian culture in general, are hieroglyphic inscriptions on sarcophagi, pyramids and other buildings, and primarily papyri.

From ancient Egypt to our time, medical papyri have come down, which are collections with descriptions of various diseases, symptoms of diseases, with instructions for methods of recognition and treatment, with lists of recipes. The oldest surviving papyrus is Kakhunsky, dedicated to female diseases and written around 1850 BC NS. For 1550 BC. NS. the two most extensive medical papyri were compiled: Smith papyrus, found in Luxor, dedicated to surgery, wound healing and anatomy, and Ebers papyrus, found in Thebes, dedicated to diseases of the body parts. The Smith papyrus is considered a late copy of an older papyrus attributed to Imhotep that has not survived to our time. Written later - around 1450-1350. Don. NS. - Brugsch papyrus treats the health of mothers and children, diseases of children and is the most ancient document on pediatrics. The rest of the known medical papyri were written between 1200-1300 BC. NS. The content of the papyri is the result of numerous observations, a summary of more ancient materials, a copy and alteration of pre-existing medical documents that have not come down to us.

Egyptian medical papyri reflect different views on disease. The oldest papyrus focuses on the rules of thumb for treatment, the indication of medicines, and contains almost no religious motives. In the compilation of the Ebers papyrus, which is closer to us in time, along with a mass of empirical observations, there are inclusions of a mystical, religious nature, advice on the magical actions of a doctor. Even closer to us in time of writing, the Brugsch papyrus is saturated with religious mysticism and contains many indications of magical procedures and prayers. The famous German Egyptologist Trapov noted with surprise that "medicine in Egypt over time more and more plunged into witchcraft and mysticism."

According to the beliefs of the Egyptians, the soul of a person continues to exist after his death, but only if the body is preserved in which it could move. In order to protect the corpses from decomposition, embalming was used. This was facilitated by the acquisition of knowledge in the field of anatomy. The embalming was not broad in nature, it covered only the privileged elite - kings (pharaohs), priests, the most wealthy people, as a result of which the experience of embalming was relatively limited. A number of anatomical terms used in Ancient Egypt indicate the knowledge of some organs, including the brain, liver, heart, and blood vessels. However, knowledge of human anatomy and physiology among the Egyptians remained scarce.

Descriptions of disease symptoms have been developed in some detail. The papyri describe intestinal diseases, respiratory diseases, bleeding, skin diseases, elephantiasis, eye diseases, and severe debilitating fevers. A number of branches of medical medicine were designed to meet the increased needs of wealthy people. This includes massage, hydrotherapy, the use of expensive drugs with a very complex formulation, etc.

Elements of sanitation and improvement, discovered by archaeologists when studying the ruins of ancient Egyptian cities, were also found only in palaces and quarters of the nobility and did not apply to settlements and dwellings of other segments of the population.

The military doctors accompanying the Egyptian army on the march accumulated information in the field of the treatment of wounds, fractures and other injuries. On the tombs of the Old Kingdom, images of operations on the limbs have been preserved. One of the oldest papyri, attributed to the physician Imhotep, who was later deified, contains a description of the operations.

In Egypt, wound dressing, amputation, circumcision, castration were used. In the papyrus of Imhotep contains an analysis of injuries, which, according to the forecast, are divided into curable, doubtful and hopeless. Instructions are given on how to recognize the gestational age and "a woman who can and cannot give birth." There are apt descriptions of paralysis, etc. The papyrus contains an indication of the importance of the brain and spinal cord for the human body, describes head and spinal injuries, and indicates that as a result of brain damage, the entire body is incurably damaged.

At the temples there were schools for the training of doctors. 600 BC NS. these schools began to accept foreign students. In Egypt, the Greeks often studied medicine.

The medicine of ancient Egypt had a great influence on the medicine of the Greeks, Jews and Arabs.

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Even in ancient times, representatives of some civilizations reached such heights in some areas of knowledge that even today it is difficult to believe. And some of the technological secrets of our predecessors are unknown to modern scientists. Ancient Egypt was one of these amazing civilizations. Medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and construction have reached a very high level there. And the topic of this article will be specifically healing.

Ancient Egypt: medicine and religious beliefs

Everything that was done here was inextricably linked with religious beliefs... In general, this state of affairs is typical for many It was believed that the medicine of Egypt was the brainchild of the god of wisdom Thoth, who created 32 Hermetic books for people, six of which were devoted to medicine. Unfortunately, the news about this storehouse of ancient knowledge reached us only in indirect mentions. The works themselves were lost.

Ancient Egypt: Medicine and Biological Knowledge

Apart from these books, knowledge of biology and anatomy also existed on the papyri. The most famous of these are the Smith and Ebers papyri. They have come down to us from the middle of the II century. BC. The Ebers Papyrus contains general medical topics, prescriptions and prescriptions. Smith's legacy provides valuable insight into the treatment of bruises and wounds. In addition, archaeologists also found individual works on gynecology and pediatrics. However, the medicine of ancient Egypt

had and weak sides... Despite the constant practice of opening and embalming the dead, knowledge of the anatomy of the human body and its physiology has not received much development. First of all, this was due to the existence of many prohibitions regarding the dead body. They significantly impeded his study. Actually, not even doctors were involved in embalming, but individual specialists for whom the body was not of interest from the point of view of treating diseases.

Ancient Egypt: Medicine and Disease Treatment

Until modern days, texts have reached that contained fairly complete information about various diseases, as well as methods of their treatment. At the same time, the development of medicine was hampered by the concept of human ailments, which were based on the ideas of the instillation of evil spirits into the patient. Poisoning and weather could also be other reasons. Therefore, the most important component of the treatment was magic rituals and conspiracies. In surgery, only the simplest procedures were carried out: the application of splints, the reduction of dislocations. Nevertheless, the diagnosis was quite well developed. So, the Egyptians learned to determine the pulse in different arteries. They had a fairly complete understanding of blood circulation, realized the importance of the heart. What reached heights in ancient Egypt was pharmacology, which existed in the form different types medicinal potions. It was known enough a large number of drugs. Their required doses have been found out at various diseases... For example, olive oil, castor oil, opium and saffron are still used today.

The study of ancient Egyptian texts began relatively recently, after the French scientist J. F. Champollion unraveled the mystery of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. The first report of this was made on September 27, 1822, before a meeting of French scientists. This day is considered to be the birthday of the science of Egyptology. The discovery of Champollion was associated with the study of the inscriptions on the Rosetta stone, found by an officer of the Napoleonic army in 1799 while digging trenches near the city of Rosetta in Egypt. Before the deciphering of the ancient Egyptian writing, the only sources on the history of Ancient Egypt and its medicine were the information of the Greek historian Herodotus, the Egyptian priest Manetho, presented in the ancient Greek language, as well as the works of the Greek writers Diodorus, Polybius, Strabo, Plutarch, etc. tombs and papyrus scrolls remained "mute" for researchers. For the first time, the existence of medical treatises in Ancient Egypt is mentioned in an entry on the wall of the tomb of Uash-Ptah, the chief architect of the king of the 5th dynasty Neferirka-Ra (XXV century BC). The same inscription provides clinical picture the sudden death of an architect, which, according to modern concepts, resembles a myocardial infarction or cerebral stroke. The oldest medical treatises are written on papyri. They have not survived to this day and we know about them only from the testimony of ancient historians. Thus, the priest Menephon reports that Atotis (the second king of the 1st dynasty) compiled a medical papyrus on the structure of the human body. Currently, 10 major papyri are known, fully or partially devoted to healing. They are all lists from earlier treatises. The oldest extant medical papyrus dates from about 1800 BC. NS. One of its sections is devoted to the management of childbirth, and the other to the treatment of animals. At the same time, the IV and V papyri from the Romeseum were compiled, which describe the methods of magical healing. The most complete information about the medicine of Ancient Egypt is given by two papyri, dating from about 1550 BC. e., - great medical papyrus G. Ebers and papyrus on surgery E. Smith. Both papyri, apparently, were written by the same person and are copies of an older treatise. Egyptologists believe that this ancient non-extant papyrus was compiled by the legendary physician Imhotep at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. NS. Subsequently, Imhotep was deified.

2. Connection of the mythology of Ancient Egypt with healing... The Egyptian religion, which has existed for almost four millennia, was based on the cult of animals. Each Egyptian nom (city-state) had its own sacred animal or bird: a cat, lion, bull, ram, falcon, ibis, etc. Snakes were especially revered. Cobra Wajit was the patroness of Lower Egypt. Her image was on the headdress of the pharaoh. Along with the falcon, bee and kite, she personified royal power. On the amulets, the cobra was placed next to the sacred eye - the symbol of the sky god Horus. The deceased cult animal was embalmed and buried in sacred tombs: cats in the city of Bubastis, ibises in the city of Iunu, dogs in the cities of their death. Mummies of sacred snakes were buried in the temples of the god Amon-Ra. In Memphis, in a grand underground necropolis, a large number of stone sarcophagi with the mummies of sacred bulls were discovered. The killing of a sacred animal was punishable by death. According to the Egyptians, the soul of a deceased person has been in the bodies of deified animals and birds for 3 thousand years, which helps her to avoid the dangers of the afterlife. By this Herodotus explains the severity of the punishment for killing a sacred animal. The main gods of healing were considered the god of wisdom Thoth and the goddess of motherhood and fertility, Isis. He was depicted as a man with the head of an ibis bird or embodied in the form of a baboon. Both the ibis and the baboon personified wisdom in Ancient Egypt. He created writing, mathematics, astronomy, religious rites, music and, most importantly, a system for treating diseases natural remedies... The most ancient medical treatises are attributed to him. Isis was considered the creator of the magical foundations of healing and the patroness of children. Medicines with the name of Isis are even mentioned in the writings of the ancient Roman pharmacist Galen. Ancient Egyptian medicine also had other divine patrons: the mighty lion-headed goddess Sokhmet, protector of women and women in labor; the goddess Tauert, depicted as a female hippo. Every newborn Egyptian, regardless of social status, lay next to a small statue of Towert.

Egypt became the birthplace of the afterlife cult. Religion said that the soul after death returns to the body and will remain restless if the body is not preserved. First, the entrails were removed from the body of the deceased and placed in different vessels, then the body was wrapped in fabrics impregnated with special resins. This is how the process of embalming the dead took place.

First described in detail by Herodotus, it seemed to the Greeks a great mystery. The medical art of the Egyptians has amazed their imaginations before. Homer wrote about Egypt: "... every one of the people there is a doctor who has a deep knowledge of other people." The Egyptians knew many medicinal plants.

The aromatic resins of tropical trees - frankincense and myrrh - were highly prized. They were used for both religious and medical purposes. The art of healing was denoted by two hieroglyphs - a scalpel and a mortar, connecting the symbols of surgery and pharmacology.

As with all ancient cultures, medicine in Egypt was associated with religion. It was believed that the cause of the disease can be both natural and supernatural - come from the gods, spirits or the soul of the deceased. With a person who has fallen into their power, misfortunes occur: his bones break, his heart collapses, his blood deteriorates, his brain gets sick, his intestines stop working properly.

Death can occur even if, with the help of spells, the evil spirit was expelled, but they did it at the wrong time and its destructive effect on the human body has gone too far.

Therefore, the doctor had to first of all, without wasting time, discover the cause of the disease and, if necessary, remove the evil spirit from the body or even destroy it. The medical arts included the knowledge of many spells and the ability to quickly and skillfully prepare amulets. After the "expulsion of the spirit" was completed, medications could be applied.

Medical papyri of ancient Egypt

About 10 papyrus scrolls with medical texts are currently known. These texts, as well as the testimonies of historians and writers of antiquity, images on the walls of tombs and tombstones give us an idea of ​​the medical knowledge of the ancient Egyptians.

Let's talk in more detail about two medical papyri - the Ebers papyrus and the Smith papyrus.

Ebers Papyrus

The most extensive information is provided by the large medical papyrus of Ebers (XVI century BC), found in 1872 in Thebes. Glued from 108 sheets of papyrus, it reaches a length of 20.5 m and is called "The Book of Preparation of Medicines for All Parts of the Body". The text contains many references to its divine origin and references to other ancient sources of medical knowledge.

The Ebers papyrus contains 900 prescriptions of medicines for the treatment of diseases of the digestive system, respiratory tract, ear, throat, nose, eyes, skin. The title of each recipe is highlighted in red, and its form is usually laconic. At the beginning there is a heading, for example, "Means for expelling blood from a wound", then the components are listed with an indication of the dose, at the end there is a prescription, for example: "cook, mix".

Many medicinal plants are mentioned in the papyri. Among them are the familiar onions and aloe. The onion was revered as a sacred plant. This was due not only to its valuable medicinal properties, but also with an unusual structure: the concentric layers of the onion symbolized the structure of the universe.

The Egyptians used aloe juice not only for treatment, but also for embalming the dead. In ancient times, wounds, burns and tumors were treated with this juice. The homeland of this plant is the arid regions of Africa and Madagascar. Here aloe reaches 10 m in height. The lower part of its stem gradually grows stiff and leaves free. This feature explains the origin of the name "aloe tree".

The medicines included plants (onion, poppy, papyrus, dates, pomegranate, aloe, grapes), animal products (honey, milk), minerals (antimony, sulfur, iron, lead, soda, alabaster, clay, saltpeter).

In the Middle Ages, mandrake juice was the basis of a narcotic composition to alleviate the suffering of patients and especially for surgical operations. Widely used in medical purposes body parts and fat of animals.

So, for example, an ointment for hair growth was prepared from the following components: gazelle fat, snake fat, crocodile fat, hippopotamus fat. One of the sections of the Ebers papyrus is devoted to cosmetics, It contains recipes for smoothing wrinkles, removing moles, coloring hair and eyebrows.

The Egyptian doctor was skilled in cosmetics, he had to know how to change the complexion and hair color, to make the body beautiful.

Smith papyrus

The Egyptians own one of the most ancient texts that have come down to us about the structure of the human body and surgical treatment (operations), the first description of the brain that has come down to us. This information is contained in the Smith papyrus (XVI century BC).

The tape 4.68 m long captures the anatomy and surgery of the ancient Egyptians, describes 48 cases of traumatic injuries of the skull, brain, cervical vertebrae, chest and spine and methods of their healing.

The treatment of some diseases was clearly hopeless, information about them had only theoretical value for doctors. Among this kind of information - oldest description paralysis of the upper and lower extremities with loss of speech and hearing as a result of traumatic brain injury. A lot of space is occupied by the description of wounds and injuries received in battles, dislocations and fractures.

A piece of raw meat was applied to the bleeding fresh wound, then the edges were sutured with needles and threads. Festering wounds were sprinkled with bread or tree mold. Historical parallels: The use of mold to heal festering wounds seems paradoxical at first glance, but Egyptian doctors were aware of its healing effects.

The empirical knowledge of ancient physicians received scientific confirmation after thousands of years. In the 20s. XX century English bacteriologist Alexander Fleming isolated penicillin from mold, an antibiotic with broad antimicrobial action.

In 1929, he published data on this discovery, which did not attract the attention of the scientific community, like his story about penicillin in 1936 at the International Congress of Microbiologists. Only in 1940 the use of penicillin entered medical practice, and in 1945 Fleming was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work.

The Smith papyrus contains guidelines for surgeons that sound surprisingly modern. “When you see a man with a damaged collarbone in front of you and you see that it is shorter and does not stand like the other ... tell yourself: this is the disease that I will treat.

And then you have to lay him on his back, put something between his shoulder blades and straighten his shoulders so that the broken bones fall into place. And you have to make two bundles of fabric and tie them behind your hands. " It was also in ancient Egypt that one of the first written sources on gynecology, obstetrics and veterinary medicine was created. All this information was contained in the Kahun papyrus.