The main merit of Justinian. Justinian the great

Main article: Byzantium

Justinian I

Code of Civil Law

Saint Sophie Cathedral

Diplomacy

Pictures (photos, drawings)

• Emperor Justinian's table of reign: politeka

• Ways to Achieve Justinian's Purpose

• Essay on Politics Unistianne 1

• Justinian's cultural achievements

• The purpose of Justinian's reign

Questions for this article:

Art of Byzantium under Justinian the Great. 6th century.

Under Justinian, all the trends that were outlined earlier in culture were further developed.

1. Architecture.

One of the first architectural monuments of Justinian's reign is Church of San Vittale in Ravenna (Italy). This church amazes with its interior decoration: mosaics completely cover the walls of the temple, smalt dissolves the wall, destroying its materiality. It is noteworthy that there are two processions bringing gifts to the Christian temple: one of them is led by the Emperor Justinian, and the other by the Empress Theodora.

Here they are depicted as ideal rulers, overshadowed by the reflection of divine glory.

The most complete, remaining in the centuries, unsurpassed embodiment of Byzantism is the Temple of St. Sophia of Constantinople. The construction of this cathedral became the work of Justinian's life. Sophia of Constantinople is superior to the Roman Pantheon and St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. In this temple, the feeling of the vastness of space is incomparably brighter and stronger. This cathedral was to become the main temple of the new Constantinople.

For the construction of the cathedral, forces and means were used equal to the financing of a large military-industrial program in modern times. But these funds paid off - the beauty of this cathedral brought Byzantium more allies and income than its many wars. The architects of Sophia of Constantinople were two geniuses, the best representatives of the late antique scientific intelligentsia:

- the great mathematician Isidore of Miletus,

- engineer, professional architect Anfillius from Troll.

In the construction of this cathedral, we see a fusion of the highest scientific and artistic culture with the solution of an amazingly bold constructive task.

The main difficulty was the immensity of the construction: it was necessary to erect a structure of 100 meters in length, and cover it with a dome 32 meters in diameter, raising this dome to 40 meters in height (14 storey house). At the time, this was an almost impossible task. The Byzantines, unlike the Roman architects, did not have the raw materials for the production of concrete - volcanic sand.

The concept of the temple is a domed canopy. The center of the cathedral was a giant dome, but thanks to the reduction and crushing architectural elements from top to bottom, the entire structure seems to be devoid of gravity, as if hanging. The authors found a way out of the intricacies of numerous arches and vaults carrying the main load and semi-domes adjacent to the main dome. The main dome has 40 windows in diameter, so it appears to be floating in the air. The vault of the temple is supported by 104 columns, the material for which was brought from all over the post-antique world: green columns were made of Fassolian marble, white ones from Egyptian porphyry. There are columns here brought from Syria, from the Temple of the Sun; 8 columns of green jasper were brought from the temple of Artemis. Ivory, semi-precious stones, inlay, carving with gilding were used as decoration. The cathedral was built in record time -

5 years. The theme mosaics on the walls and vaults of the temple appeared later in the 9-10th centuries, the last mosaics date back to the 12th century. Some of them have come down to our time.

Designed for patriarchal and imperial ceremonies, the cathedral was built on the highest hill in the city above the coast of the Sea of ​​Marmara.

According to legend, Justinian, entering the built cathedral, said the following words: “Solomon, I have surpassed you,” meaning the legendary Jerusalem temple. Over the past 15 centuries, no one dared to repeat the same words about Justinian and the cathedral he built.

Saint Sophia Cathedral has gone through a long and complex history:

- suffered three times from an earthquake in the 6th, 10th and 14th centuries;

- after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, it was converted into the main mosque of the Turkish Empire: 4 minaret towers grew around Hagia Sophia, matching the size of the great church;

- and only in 1930 this temple was turned into a museum of three religions.

It is still easy to understand the words of our ancestors sent 1000 years ago by the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir to Constantinople: “We do not know whether we were in heaven or on earth. But there is no such kind and such beauty on earth. We only know that God and man arrives there. " Procopius of Caesarea in the 6th century wrote about St. Sophia: "Everyone immediately understands that such a thing was completed not by human power or art, but by God's will."

In addition to Sophia of Constantinople, many other churches were built under Justinian. There were 25 churches in one capital. Architecture became a real passion of Justinian: in addition to churches, fountains, wells, and cisterns were built to store fresh water in case of a siege of the city by an enemy.

2. Iconography.

The Greeks and Romans believed that the gods could possess statues and built statues of the gods in their temples.

Justinian's reign in the Byzantine Empire

Christianity, on the other hand, abandoned sculpture, since according to Christian teaching, inner, spiritual beauty is important, and not bodily. It is also impossible to depict God in painting, since he is outside of being. Therefore, even in the period of early Christianity, either figures of worshipers or the image of the Mother of God with the Child were depicted in the Roman catacombs.

Under Justinian, icons - portraits of saints, made on boards, became widespread as a decorative decoration of churches. Not many of the early icons have survived. The Byzantine style of icon painting is an image of a saint with an elongated face and an ascetic expression, with almond-shaped eyes. All lines of the drawing were painted in gold.

3. Gymnography.

Hymnography, a special form of liturgical chant, became widespread under Justinian. Singing in churches was accompanied by organ music.

mybiblioteka.su - 2015-2018. (0.1 sec.)

Main article: Byzantium

The Byzantine Empire reached its peak during the reign of the emperor Justinian I(527-565). At this time, Vizantia not only repelled the onslaught of neighboring Persia, Turkic, Germanic and Slavic tribes, but also almost doubled its territory, conquering the Vandal state in North Africa, the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and the southeastern part Visigothic Kingdom in Spain.

Achievements of the Empire of Justinian I

Code of Civil Law

Under Justinian, the most famous monument of Byzantine legal thought was created - the Code of Civil Law (Code). It was a unified legislative code, which was based on the legislative provisions of Roman law. However, completely new ideas also appear here. So, it was in the Code that the theory of natural human rights was first legally fixed, according to which all people are free from nature. Many provisions of the Code facilitated the release of slaves to freedom, defended the principle of private property. As the legislative code of the Christian state, the Code also defended the rights of the church.

Saint Sophie Cathedral

The symbol of the greatness of the Christian Byzantine Empire was the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia, built under Justinian in Constantinople. Material from the site http://wikiwhat.ru

This monumental structure, richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics, amazed the imagination of contemporaries. Due to the fact that the grandiose dome with a diameter of 31.5 meters rested on many thin columns, from a distance it seemed that it literally hovers over the cathedral. Therefore, among travelers, the legend spread that the dome of the Hagia Sophia was suspended from the sky as a sign of the special favor of God to Emperor Justinian.

Diplomacy

Conducting an active foreign policy, the Byzantine Empire under Justinian I achieved great success in the field of diplomacy. Byzantine diplomats, trained in the languages ​​of almost all the peoples of the world, developed the procedure for receiving and sending embassies, created formulas for international agreements that became the standard for many peoples.

Pictures (photos, drawings)

On this page material on topics:

• 1261 in the history of Byzantium

• Justinian as a politician

• How the territory of Byzantium expanded during the reign of Justinian

• International relations in Byzantium periods of development

• Achievement by the Byzantine Empire

Questions for this article:

• What are the main achievements of the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Justinian I?

Material from the site http://WikiWhat.ru

Golden Age of Byzantium under Justinian 1

The Byzantine Empire reached its greatest power during the reign of Emperor Justinian I (527-565).

Justinian I came from a poor peasant family. His uncle Justin curried himself out of ordinary soldiers to the rank of commander and, having seized the throne by force, became emperor. Justin brought his nephew closer to the court, gave him a good education. After the death of his uncle, Justinian I inherited the throne.

Emperor Justinian I possessed considerable political wisdom and courage. He significantly renewed the life of the empire with reforms, revived international trade, which became not only a means of replenishing the state treasury, but also a source of prosperity for the entire people. In the character of Justinian I, along with energy, will and foresight, bad traits inherent in many great politicians coexisted - hypocrisy, treachery, cruelty.

The wife of Justinian I, the Empress Theodora, also became famous. In her early youth, Theodora was an actress. Although in those days the craft of the actor was considered shameful and unworthy of decent people, Emperor Justinian I, conquered by her extraordinary beauty, despised the opinion of society and married Theodora, making her empress. Theodora was distinguished by a sharp mind, imperiousness and extraordinary fearlessness.

Justinian's Wars

Emperor Justinian I decided to reunite the former lands of the Roman Empire. In 534, the emperor sent the general Belisarius against the Vandals who settled in North Africa and plundered merchant ships in the Mediterranean. The Vandals were heretics-Arians, and therefore they could not enter into agreement with the local Orthodox population, which showed complete indifference to the troubles of their enslavers. The well-armed troops of the Byzantines quickly dealt with the Vandal kingdom, North Africa with the city of Carthage became a Byzantine province.

Then Belisarius went to Italy, the Byzantines easily conquered the island of Sicily. However, in Italy itself, they met with stubborn resistance from the Ostrogoths. In the fight against Belisarius, the Ostrogoths used fugitive slaves, granting them freedom, while the Byzantines sought to preserve slavery in Italy and severely punished slaves for any disobedience. However, most of the inhabitants of Italy still did not support the Ostrogoths, not only because they were Germans, but also because the Ostrogoths, like the Vandals, adhered to Arianism. The Byzantines conquered most of Italy, creating on the conquered lands a special governorship (exarchate) with the capital in Ravenna.

As the war in Italy drew to a close, Justinian I sent troops to Spain. In Spain, the Visigoths dominated. However, even here, as in Italy, the local population did not help the Goths. The powerful Spanish church was especially at enmity with them. The Byzantines easily defeated the Visigoths, captured the southern regions of Spain and captured the Strait of Gibraltar.

Temple of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople

Emperor Justinian I, having accumulated great wealth, built temples, fortresses, palaces throughout the empire, and redecorated entire cities. The most famous building of Justinian I was the temple of Hagia Sophia (that is, the Wisdom of God) in Constantinople. Nowadays Constantinople is within Turkey. The Turks call it Istanbul, and Hagia Sophia (in Turkish Aya Sophia) became a mosque.

This grandiose building remained unsurpassed for a long time neither in Europe nor in Asia. The temple, built of bricks, was trimmed inside with rare marble and decorated with mosaics depicting Christian symbols and floral designs. The attraction of the temple is its huge dome with a diameter of 31.5 m. Numerous windows are cut through at the base of the dome. When a person, standing in a temple, looks up at the dome, because of the light pouring from the windows and because of the large distance to the dome, the thin openings between the windows are not visible, and it seems as if the dome hovers over the temple without support. Once it was even said that the dome of Hagia Sophia was allegedly suspended on golden chains to the very sky. When the temple was consecrated (537), Emperor Justinian I exclaimed: “Glory to the Lord, who deigned me to do such a deed! Solomon, I have defeated you! "

Code of Roman law

Another great work of Emperor Justinian I was the creation of a body of Roman law (in Latin - Corpus juris tivihs). Justinian I ordered to bring together and organize the various teachings and opinions of famous Roman jurists who lived in previous centuries. And to this day, Roman law is at the heart of civil law in most modern countries.

After the death of Justinian I, Byzantium for many centuries, step by step, yielded to its numerous enemies more and more new lands. Byzantium will never regain the power and splendor of the Justinian era.

Procopius of Caesarea on the uprising of 532 in Constantinople

In Byzantium, a rebellion suddenly broke out among the people, which, against their hopes, spread enormously and had the most disastrous end for the people and the Synclite. The city was set on fire, as if it were in the hands of enemies. The Temple of Sophia, the Baths of Zeusippus and the royal palaces ... fell victim to the flame, and with them large porticoes ... many houses of the richest people and great wealth. The tsar and his wife, together with some synclites, locked themselves in the Palatia and remained inactive there. (The rebels) gave each other a conventional cry: “Nika! Nika!" (ie “win!

what achievements the Byzantine empire became famous for under Justinian

conquer! "), and that is why the rebellion is still known under the name of Nick ...

Meanwhile, the tsar had a conference: what do you want to do, whether to stay here or flee on ships. Much has been said in favor of both opinions. Finally, Queen Theodora said:

Now, I think, is not the time to speculate whether it is proper for a woman to show courage in front of men and to speak before the timid with youthful courage. Those with affairs in the greatest danger have no choice but to arrange them in the best possible manner. In my opinion, running away, even if it ever brought salvation and, perhaps, will bring it now, is unworthy. Those who were born cannot help but die, but for those who once reigned, being a fugitive is unbearable. Let me not lose this porphyry, let me not live to see the day when the counter will not call me mistress! If you wish to save yourself by flight, sir, it is not difficult. We have a lot of money, and the sea is nearby, and there are ships. But be careful that you who are saved do not have to choose death over salvation. I like the ancient saying that kingship is the best shroud.

The queen said so; her words inspired everyone. Strengthened in spirit, the advisers were already talking about how they could defend themselves if the rebels attacked them ... The king (same) put all hope in Belisarius ...

(Belisarius) decided it was better to attack the people, against this innumerable multitude of people who were standing on the hippodrome and pushing in great disorder. He drew his sword, ordered his soldiers to follow his example, and with a cry rushed into the middle of the crowd. The people, who did not know the formation, seeing that the warriors covered in armor ... struck everyone without mercy, gave themselves up to flight ... The victory was complete, a great many people were killed.

Procopius of Caesarea on how the Byzantines learned the secret of silk

At that time, some monks who arrived from India, knowing that King Justinian was in difficulty, since the Persians did not sell raw silk to the Romans, promised the king to introduce this raw silk so that the Romans ( This implies the Sassanian state in Iran in the III-VII centuries, the constant rival of the first Roman, and then the Byzantine empire.) could not receive this product either from the Persians, their enemies, or from any other peoples. For they spent a long time in a land above India, (inhabited) by numerous peoples and called Serinda ( Serinda - as the Byzantines called China. It is possible, however, that one of the regions of Central Asia is meant here.), where they exactly studied the art of this kind, so that it was possible to receive raw silk in the Roman land.

Continuing to investigate and find out whether the words spoken by the monks are true that some worms produce raw silk, (the king learned) that it is impossible to transport living worms, and their embryos, on the contrary, are convenient for transportation and completely light. The eggs laid by each of the worms are innumerable. These people (i.e., monks) buried the eggs in the manure long after they were laid, and after a while they took out live worms. The king (promised) to give gifts to men, urging them to fulfill their word.

And they again went to Serinda and delivered the eggs to Byzantium. When the worms were hatched in this way, they released them to feed on the mulberry leaves, and from them later raw silk went in the Roman land. Such were the circumstances with silk during the war between the Romans and the Persians.

From the Code of Justinian 0 Justice and Law

The student of law must first of all find out where the word "law" came from. The law got its name from "justice", because ... law is the science of good and just.

1. According to merit, we (experts in law) were called priests, for we care about justice, proclaim the concept of good and just, separating the just from the unjust, distinguishing what is permissible from the unlawful, wishing that the good would improve not only by fear of punishment, but also by encouraging rewards , striving for the true, if I am not mistaken, philosophy, and not for the imaginary.

2. The study of law is divided into two parts: public and private (law). Public law refers to the position of the Roman state, private refers to the benefit of individuals ... Private law is divided into three parts, for it is composed of natural norms, or from (prescriptions) of peoples, or from (prescriptions of) civil.

3. Natural law is that which nature has taught all living things: for this right is inherent not only to the human race, but also to all animals that are born on earth and in the sea, and to birds; this includes the combination of a man and a woman, which we call marriage, here is the procreation of children, here is education; we see that animals, further wild ones, have knowledge of this right.

4. The right of peoples is a right enjoyed by the peoples of mankind; one can easily understand its difference from natural law: the latter is common to all animals, and the former is only for people (in their relations) with each other.<…>

5. Civil law is not completely separated from natural law and from the law of peoples and does not adhere to it in everything; if we add something to the general law or exclude something from it, then we create our own, that is, civil law.

6. Civil law is one that comes from laws, plebiscites ... opinions of sages.

Justinian I the Great, full name who sounds like Justinian Flavius ​​Peter Sabbatius, the Byzantine emperor (i.e. the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire), one of the largest emperors of late antiquity, during which this era began to give way to the Middle Ages, and the Roman style of government gave way to the Byzantine one. He remained in history as a major reformer.

Born in about 483, he was a native of Macedonia, a peasant's son. A decisive role in the biography of Justinian was played by his uncle, who became Emperor Justin I. The childless monarch, who loved his nephew, brought him closer to himself, promoted education and advancement in society. Researchers suggest that Justinian could have arrived in Rome at approximately 25 years of age, studied law and theology in the capital and began his ascent to the top of political Olympus from the rank of the personal imperial bodyguard, head of the guard corps.

In 521, Justinian rose to the rank of consul and became a very popular person, not least thanks to the organization of luxurious circus performances. The Senate repeatedly proposed to Justin to make his nephew a co-regent, but the emperor took this step only in April 527, when his health deteriorated significantly. On August 1 of the same year, after the death of his uncle, Justinian became a sovereign ruler.

The newly made emperor, feeding ambitious plans, immediately set about strengthening the power of the country. In domestic politics, this was manifested, in particular, in the implementation of legal reform. Published 12 books "Codex Justinian" and 50 - "Digesta" remained relevant for more than a millennium. Justinian's laws contributed to centralization, the expansion of the powers of the monarch, the strengthening of the state apparatus and the army, and increased control in certain areas, in particular, in trade.

The coming to power was marked by the onset of a period of large-scale construction. The Constantinople Church of St. Sofia was rebuilt in such a way that for many centuries it had no equal among Christian churches.

Justinian I the Great pursued a rather aggressive foreign policy aimed at conquering new territories. His military leaders (the emperor himself was not in the habit of personally participating in hostilities) managed to conquer part of North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and a significant part of the territory of the Western Roman Empire.

The reign of this emperor was marked by a number of riots, incl. the largest Nika uprising in Byzantine history: this is how the population reacted to the harshness of the measures taken. In 529, Justinian closed the Academy of Plato, in 542 - abolished the consular post. More and more honors were shown to him, likening to a saint. Justinian himself, towards the end of his life, gradually lost interest in state concerns, giving preference to theology, dialogues with philosophers and clergy. He died in Constantinople in the fall of 565.

Justinian I the Great (lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus) ruled Byzantium from 527 to 565. Under Justinian the Great, the territory of Byzantium almost doubled. Historians believe that Justinian was one of the greatest monarchs of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages.
Justinian was born around 483. in a peasant family of a provincial village in a mountain Macedonia, near Skupi ... For a long time, the prevailing opinion was that he was of Slavic origin and wore originally the name of the Governor, this legend was very widespread among the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula.

Justinian was distinguished by strict Orthodoxy , was a reformer and military strategist who made the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Coming from the dark mass of the provincial peasantry, Justinian was able to firmly and firmly assimilate two grandiose ideas: the Roman idea of ​​a worldwide monarchy; and the Christian idea of ​​the kingdom of God. Combining both ideas and putting them into action with the help of power in a secular state that accepted these two ideas as political doctrine of the Byzantine Empire.

Under Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine Empire reached its dawn, after a long period of decline, the monarch tried to restore the empire and return it to its former greatness. It is believed that Justinian fell under the influence of the strong character of his wife Theodora, whom he solemnly crowned in 527

Historians believe that the main goal of Justinian's foreign policy was the revival of the Roman Empire within its former borders, the empire was to turn into a single Christian state. As a result, all the wars waged by the emperor were aimed at expanding their territories, especially to the west, in the territory of the fallen Western Roman Empire.

The main commander of Justinian, who dreamed of the revival of the Roman Empire, was Belisarius, who became a commander at the age of 30.

In the year 533 Justinian sent Belisarius's army to North Africa for conquest of the kingdom of the vandals. The war against the Vandals was successful for Byzantium, and already in 534 the commander of Justinian won a decisive victory. As in the African campaign, the commander Belisarius kept in the Byzantine army many mercenaries - wild barbarians.

Even sworn enemies could help the Byzantine Empire - it was enough to pay them. So, huns made up a significant part of the army Belisarius which on 500 ships left Constantinople for North Africa.Hunnic cavalry , who served as mercenaries in the Byzantine army of Belisarius, played a decisive role in the war against Kingdom of Vandal in North Africa. During the general battle, the opponents fled from the wild horde of the Huns and hid in the Numidian desert. Then the general Belisarius took Carthage.

After the annexation of North Africa in Byzantine Constantinople turned their eyes to Italy, on the territory of which there existed kingdom of the Ostrogoths. Emperor Justinian the Great decided to declare war Germanic kingdoms , who waged constant wars among themselves and were weakened on the eve of the invasion of the Byzantine army.

The war with the Ostrogoths was successful, and the king of the Ostrogoths had to turn to Persia for help. Justinian secured himself in the East against a blow from the rear by making peace with Persia and launching a campaign to invade Western Europe.

First thing the general Belisarius occupied Sicily, where he met little resistance. Italian cities also surrendered one by one until the Byzantines approached Naples.

Belisarius (505-565), Byzantine general under Justinian I, 540 (1830). Belasarius refusing the crown of their kingdom in Italy offered to him by the Goths in 540. Belisarius was a brilliant general who defeated a range of enemies of the Byzantine Empire, virtually doubling its territory in the process. (Photo by Ann Ronan Pictures / Print Collector / Getty Images)

After the fall of Naples, Pope Silverius invited Belisarius to enter the holy city. The Goths left Rome , and soon Belisarius occupied Rome as the capital of the empire. The Byzantine military leader Belisarius, however, understood that the enemy was only gathering strength, so he immediately began to strengthen the walls of Rome. The subsequent the siege of Rome by the Goths lasted one year and nine days (537 - 538). The Byzantine army defending Rome not only withstood the attacks of the Goths, but also continued its advance deep into the Apennine Peninsula.

Belisarius' victories allowed the Byzantine Empire to take control of the northeastern part of Italy. After the death of Belisarius was created exarchate (province) with capital in Ravenna ... Although Rome was later lost to Byzantium, since Rome actually fell under the control of the pope, Byzantium retained possessions in Italy until the middle of the 8th century.

Under Justinian, the territory of the Byzantine Empire reached its largest size during the entire existence of the empire. Justinian managed to almost completely restore the former borders of the Roman Empire.

The Byzantine emperor Justinian captured all of Italy and almost the entire coast of North Africa, and the southeastern part of Spain. Thus, the territory of Byzantium doubles, but does not reach the former borders of the Roman Empire.

Already in 540 New Persian the Sassanid kingdom dissolved the peaceful treaty with Byzantium and was actively preparing for war. Justinian found himself in a difficult position, because Byzantium could not withstand a war on two fronts.

Domestic policy of Justinian the Great

In addition to an active foreign policy, Justinian also pursued a reasonable domestic policy. Under him, the Roman system of government was abolished, which was replaced by a new one - Byzantine. Justinian was actively engaged in strengthening the state apparatus, and also tried improve taxation ... Under the emperor, civil and military positions, attempts have been made reduce corruption by increasing the salaries of officials.

The people called Justinian "the sleepless emperor", as he worked day and night to reform the state.

Historians believe that Justinian's military successes were his main merit, but domestic politics, especially in the second half of his reign, devastated the state treasury.

Emperor Justinian the Great left behind a famous architectural monument that still exists today - Saint Sophie Cathedral ... This building is considered a symbol of the "golden age" in the Byzantine Empire. This cathedral is the second largest Christian temple in the world and is second only to St. Paul's Cathedral in the Vatican ... With the construction of the Hagia Sophia, Emperor Justinian won the favor of the Pope and the entire Christian world.

During the reign of Justinian, the world's first plague pandemic broke out, which engulfed the entire Byzantine Empire. The largest number of victims was recorded in the capital of the empire, Constantinople, where 40% of the total population died. According to historians, the total number of plague victims has reached about 30 million people, and possibly more.

Achievements of the Byzantine Empire under Justinian

The greatest achievement of Justinian the Great is considered an active foreign policy, which expanded the territory of Byzantium twice, practically recovering all the lost lands after the fall of Rome in 476.

As a result of numerous wars, the state treasury was depleted, and this led to popular riots and uprisings. However, the uprising prompted Justinian to issue new laws for the citizens of the entire empire. The emperor abolished Roman law, abolished outdated Roman laws, and introduced new laws. The body of these laws was named "Code of Civil Law".

The reign of Justinian the Great was really called the "golden age", he himself said: “Never before the time of our reign did God grant the Romans such victories ... Thank heaven, inhabitants of the whole world: in your days a great deed has been accomplished, which God recognized as unworthy of all ancient world»Commemoration of the greatness of Christianity was built Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

A huge breakthrough has occurred in military affairs. Justinian managed to create the largest professional mercenary army of that period. The Byzantine army led by Belisarius brought many victories to the Byzantine emperor and expanded the borders of the Byzantine Empire. However, the maintenance of a huge mercenary army and endless warriors depleted the state treasury of the Byzantine Empire.

The first half of the reign of Emperor Justinian is called the "golden age of Byzantium", while the second caused only discontent from the people. The outskirts of the empire swept revolt of the Moors and the Goths. A in 548 during the second Italian campaign, Justinian the Great could no longer respond to Belisarius's requests to send money for the army and to pay the mercenaries.

For the last time, General Belisarius led the troops in 559, when the Kotrigur tribe invaded Thrace. The commander won a victory in the battle and could completely destroy the attackers, but Justinian at the last moment decided to buy off his restless neighbors. However, the most surprising thing was that the creator of the Byzantine victory was not even invited to the festive celebrations. After this episode, the commander Belisarius finally fell out of favor and ceased to play a noticeable role at court.

In 562, several noble inhabitants of Constantinople accused the illustrious general Belisarius of plotting against the emperor Justinian. For several months Belisarius was deprived of his property and position. Soon, Justinian was convinced of the innocence of the accused and made peace with him. Belisarius died in peace and solitude in 565 A.D. In the same year, Emperor Justinian the Great expired.

The last conflict between the emperor and the general served as a source legends about the beggar, weak and blind military leader Belisarius, begging for alms at the walls of the temple. Such - who fell out of favor - portrays him in his famous painting by the French artist Jacques Louis David.

A world state created by the will of an autocratic sovereign - such was the dream that Emperor Justinian cherished from the very beginning of his reign. By force of arms, he returned the lost old Roman territories, then gave them a general civil law, ensuring the welfare of the inhabitants, finally - he affirmed the unified Christian faith, designed to unite all nations in worship of the one true Christian God. These are the three unshakable foundations on which Justinian built the power of his empire. Justinian the Great believed that "There is nothing higher and holier than the imperial majesty"; “The creators of the law themselves said that the will of the monarch has the force of law«; « he alone is able to spend days and nights in work and wakefulness, so that think about the welfare of the people«.

Justinian the Great argued that the grace of the emperor's power, as the "anointed of God" standing over the state and over the church, was received by him directly from God. The emperor is "equal to the apostles" (Greek ίσαπόστολος), God helps him to defeat enemies, to make fair laws. Justinian's wars got character crusades - wherever the Byzantine emperor will be the lord, the Orthodox faith will shine. His piety turned into religious intolerance and was embodied in brutal persecution for deviating from the faith he recognized. Every legislative act Justinian puts "Under the patronage of the Holy Trinity."

The burned down Cathedral of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was completely rebuilt, striking in its beauty and splendor and remaining for a thousand years the most grandiose temple in the Christian world.

Place of Birth

Concerning the place of birth of Justinian, Procopius speaks out quite definitely, placing him in a place called Tavresius (lat. Tauresium), next to Fort Bederian (lat. Bederiana). Procopius further says about this place that the city of Justiniana Prima was later founded next to it, the ruins of which are now in the south-east of Serbia. Procopius also reports that Justinian significantly fortified and made numerous improvements in the city of Ulpiana, renaming it Justinian-Secunda. Nearby, he erected another city, calling it Justinopolis, after his uncle.

Most of the cities of Dardania were destroyed during the reign of Anastasius by a powerful earthquake in 518. Justinopolis was built near the destroyed capital of the province of Skupi, and a powerful wall with four towers was erected around Tavresius, which Procopius calls Tetrapyrgia.

The names "Bederiana" and "Tavresiy" have survived to our time in the form of the names of the villages of Bader and Taor near Skopje. Both of these places were explored in 1885 by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who found there rich numismatic material confirming the importance of the settlements located here after the 5th century. Evans concluded that the Skopje area was the birthplace of Justinian, confirming the identification of the old settlements with modern villages.

Justinian's family

Name of Justinian's mother, Justin's sister, Biglenitsa given in Iustiniani Vita, the unreliability of which was mentioned above. Since there is no other information on this score, we can assume that her name is unknown. The fact that Justinian's mother was Justin's sister is confirmed by numerous sources.

There is more reliable news about Father Justinian. In The Secret History, Procopius gives the following story:

From here we learn the name of Justinian's father - Savvaty. Another source where this name is mentioned is the so-called "Acts concerning Callopodius", included in the chronicle of Theophanes and the "Easter Chronicle" and relating to the events immediately preceding Nick's rebellion. There the prasins, during a conversation with the emperor's representative, say the phrase "It would have been better if Savvaty had not been born, he would not have given birth to a murderer son."

Savvaty and his wife had two children, Peter Savvaty (lat. Petrus sabbatius) and Vigilantia (lat. Vigilantia). Written sources do not mention the real name of Justinian anywhere, and only on the consular diptychs of 521 we see an inscription in lat. Fl. Petr. Sabbat. Justinian. v. i., com. mag. eqq. et p. praes., et c. od. , meaning lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, vir illustris, comes, magister equitum et peditum praesentalium et consul ordinarius.

The marriage of Justinian and Theodora was childless, yet he had six nephews and nieces, of whom Justin II became the heir.

The early years and reign of Justin

Uncle Justinian - Justin, among other Illyrian peasants, fleeing extreme poverty, came on foot from Bederian to Byzantium and was hired for military service. Arriving at the end of the reign of Leo I in Constantinople and joining the imperial guard, Justin grew rapidly in service, and already in the reign of Anastasia took part in the wars with Persia as a military leader. Further, Justin distinguished himself in suppressing Vitalian's uprising. Thus, Justin won the favor of the emperor Anastasius and was appointed chief of the palace guard with the rank of comit and senator.

The exact time of Justinian's arrival in the capital is not known. It is assumed that this happened at about the age of twenty-five, then for some time Justinian studied theology and Roman law, after which he was awarded the title of lat. candidati, that is, the personal bodyguard of the emperor. Somewhere around this time there was an adoption and a change in the name of the future emperor.

In 521, as mentioned above, Justinian received the consular rank, which he used to increase his popularity, staging magnificent shows in the circus, which grew so much that the Senate asked the aged emperor to appoint Justinian as co-regent. According to the chronicler John Zonara, Justin refused this offer. The Senate, however, continued to insist on the elevation of Justinian, asking him to confer the title of lat. nobilissimus, which happened until 525, when he was awarded the highest rank of Caesar. Despite the fact that such a brilliant career could not but have real influence, there is no reliable information about the role of Justinian in the management of the empire during this period.

Over time, the emperor's health deteriorated, and the disease caused by an old wound in the leg intensified. Feeling the approach of death, Justin responded to another request from the Senate to appoint Justinian co-ruler. The ceremony that has come down to us in the description of Peter Patricius in the treatise lat. De ceremoniis Constantine Porphyrogenitus, occurred on Easter, April 4, 527 - Justinian and his wife Theodora were crowned both August and August.

Justinian finally received full power after the death of Emperor Justin I on August 1, 527.

Appearance and lifetime images

Descriptions appearance Little of Justinian has survived. In his Secret History, Procopius describes Justinian as follows:

He was not large and not too small, but of medium height, not thin, but slightly plump; his face was round and not devoid of beauty, for even after two days of fasting a blush played on him. In order to give an idea of ​​his appearance in a few words, I will say that he was very similar to Domitian, the son of Vespasian, whose malice the Romans were fed up with to such an extent that, even having torn him to pieces, they did not satisfy their anger against him, but was endured the decision of the senate that the inscriptions did not mention his name and that not a single image of him remained. The Secret History, VIII, 12-13

The reign of Justinian was released a large number of coins. There are known donative coins of 36 and 4.5 solidus, a solidus with a full-figured image of the emperor in consular attire, as well as an extremely rare aureus weighing 5.43 g, minted according to the old Roman foot. The obverse of all these coins is occupied by either a three-quarter or a profile bust of the emperor, with or without a helmet.

Justinian and Theodora

A vivid depiction of the early career of the future empress is given with numerous details in The Secret History; John of Ephesus simply notes that "she came from a brothel." Despite the opinion of individual researchers that all these statements are unreliable and exaggerated, the generally accepted point of view generally agrees with the description of the events of Theodora's early career given by Procopius. The first meeting of Justinian with Theodora took place in about 522 in Constantinople. Then Theodora left the capital, spent some time in Alexandria. How their second meeting took place is not known for certain. It is known that, wanting to marry Theodora, Justinian asked his uncle to assign her the rank of patrician, but this provoked strong opposition from the empress, and until the latter's death in 523 or 524, the marriage was impossible.

Probably, the adoption of the law "On marriage" (lat. De nuptiis), who abolished the law of Emperor Constantine I, which forbids a person who has attained the rank of senator to marry a harlot.

After marriage, Theodora completely broke with her turbulent past and was a faithful wife.

Foreign policy

Areas of diplomacy

Main article: Byzantine diplomacy

In foreign policy, Justinian's name is primarily associated with the idea of ​​"restoring the Roman Empire" or "reconquista of the West." Currently, there are two theories regarding the question of when this goal was set. According to one of them, which is now more widespread, the idea of ​​returning the West existed in Byzantium since the end of the 5th century. This point of view is based on the thesis that after the emergence of barbarian kingdoms professing Arianism, social elements should have survived that did not recognize the loss of Rome's status as a great city and capital of the civilized world and did not agree with the dominant position of the Arians in the religious sphere.

An alternative point of view, which does not deny the common desire to return the West to the bosom of civilization and orthodox religion, attributes the emergence of a program of concrete actions after the success in the war against the vandals. This is supported by various indirect signs, for example, the disappearance of words and expressions from the legislation and state documentation of the first third of the 6th century that in one way or another mentioned Africa, Italy and Spain, as well as the loss of Byzantine interest in the first capital of the empire.

Justinian's Wars

Domestic policy

The structure of state power

The internal organization of the empire in the era of Justinian was based on the transformations of Diocletian, whose activities were continued under Theodosius I. The results of this work are presented in the famous monument Notitia dignitatum dating back to the beginning of the 5th century. This document is a detailed list of all the ranks and positions of the civil and military departments of the empire. He gives a clear understanding of the mechanism created by the Christian monarchs, which can be characterized as bureaucracy.

The military division of the empire did not everywhere coincide with the civil one. The supreme power was distributed among certain military leaders, magistri militum. In the eastern empire, according to Notitia dignitatum, there were five of them: two at court ( magistri militum praesentales) and three in the provinces of Thrace, Illyria and the East (respectively, magistri militum per Thracias, per Illyricum, per Orientem). The next in the military hierarchy were the Ducs ( duces) and commits ( comites rei militares), equivalent to the vicars of civil authority, and having the rank spectabilis, however, administrators of districts smaller than dioceses in size.

Government

The basis of Justinian's government was made up of ministers, all holding the title glorious, under which the whole empire was located. Among them, the most powerful was Prefect of the Praetorian of the East, who ruled the largest of the regions of the empire, who also determined the situation in finance, legislation, public administration, and legal proceedings. The second most important was City prefect- the governor of the capital; then chief of services- Manager of the Imperial House and Chancellery; Quaestor of the Sacred Chambers- Minister of Justice, comit of sacred bounty- imperial treasurer, private property committee and komit patrimoniev- those who managed the property of the emperor; finally three presented-the chief of the city militia, in whose command the city garrison was located. The next most important were senators- whose influence under Justinian was increasingly diminishing and comits of the sacred consistory- members of the imperial council.

Ministers

Among Justinian's ministers, the first to be named Quaestor of the Sacred Chambers-Tribonia - Minister of Justice and Head of the Chancellery. The cause of Justinian's legislative reforms is inextricably linked with his name. He was from Pamphilus and began serving in the lower ranks of the chancellery and, thanks to his hard work and sharp mind, quickly reached the position of head of the office. From that moment on, he was involved in legal reforms and enjoyed the exclusive favor of the emperor. In 529 he was appointed to the position of the palace quaestor. Tribonia is charged with the chairmanship of the commissions editing the Digesta, Codex and Institutions. Procopius admiring his intelligence and gentleness, nevertheless accuses him of greed and bribery. Nick's rebellion was largely due to the abuse of Tribonius. But even in the most difficult moment, the emperor did not leave his favorite. Although the quaestura was taken away from Tribonius, they gave him the position of chief of services, and in 535 he was again appointed quaestor. Tribonius retained the post of quaestor until his death in 544 or 545.

Another culprit in Nick's rebellion was the prefect of the praetorium, John of Cappadocia. Being of little origin, he was promoted under Justinian, thanks to his natural discernment and success in financial enterprises, he managed to win the favor of the king and get the position of imperial treasurer. He was soon elevated to dignity illustris and was promoted to provincial prefect. Possessing unlimited power, he stained himself with unheard-of cruelty atrocities in the extortion of the empire's subjects. His agents were allowed to torture and kill to achieve the goal of increasing the treasury of John himself. Having reached unprecedented power, he made himself a court party and tried to claim the throne. This led him to an open confrontation with Theodora. During Nick's uprising, he was replaced by Prefect Foka. However, in 534, John regained the prefecture. In 538, he became consul and then a patrician. Only Theodora's hatred and unusually increased ambition led him to fall in 541.

Other important ministers of the first period of Justinian's reign include Hermogenes the Hun by birth, chief of services (530-535); his successor Basilides (536-539) the quaestor in 532, in addition to the comits of the sacred bounty of Constantine (528-533) and Strategy (535-537); also the committee of private estates Flora (531-536).

John of Cappadocia was succeeded in 543 by Peter Barsimes. He started out as a silver merchant who quickly became rich thanks to merchant dexterity and trade machinations. Having entered the office, he managed to win the favor of the empress. Theodora began to promote her favorite in the service with such energy that it gave rise to gossip. As prefect, he continued John's practice of illegal extortion and financial abuse. Bread speculation in 546 led to famine in the capital and popular unrest. The emperor was forced to remove Peter, despite the protection of Theodora. However, through her efforts, he soon received the position of the imperial treasurer. Even after the death of the patroness, he retained influence and in 555 returned to the prefects of the praetorium and retained this position until 559, uniting it with the treasury.

The other Peter was the acting chief of services for many years and was one of the most influential ministers of Justinian. He was originally from Thessalonica and was originally a lawyer in Constantinople, where he became famous for his eloquence and legal knowledge. In 535, Justinian commissioned Peter to negotiate with the Ostrogoth king Theodatus. Although Peter negotiated with exceptional skill, he was imprisoned in Ravenna and returned home only in 539. The returning ambassador was showered with awards and received the high position of chief of services. Such attention to the diplomat gave rise to gossip about his involvement in the murder of Amalasunta. In 552 he received a questura, while continuing to be the chief of services. Peter held office until his death in 565. The position was inherited by his son Theodore.

Among the highest military leaders, many combined military duty with government and court posts. The commander Sitt consistently occupied the posts of consul, patrician and finally reached a high position. magister militum praesentalis... Belisarius, in addition to military posts, was still a committee of the sacred stables, then a committee of bodyguards and remained in this position until his death. Narses performed a number of positions in the internal chambers of the king - he was a cubicular, a spatarius, the chief chief of the chambers - having won the exclusive trust of the emperor, he was one of the most important keepers of secrets.

Favorites

Among the favorites, it is necessary, first of all, to include Marcellus - a committee of the emperor's bodyguards from 541. A just man, extremely honest, in devotion to the emperor, reaching self-forgetfulness. His influence on the emperor was almost limitless; Justinian wrote that Marcellus never leaves his royal personage and that his commitment to justice is surprising.

Justinian's significant favorite was the eunuch and commander Narses, who repeatedly proved his loyalty to the emperor and never fell under his suspicion. Even Procopius of Cessaria never once spoke ill of Narses, calling him a man too energetic and brave for a eunuch. As a flexible diplomat, Narses negotiated with the Persians, and also during Nick's rebellion managed to bribe and recruit many senators, after which he was appointed to the sacred bedchamber, a kind of first adviser to the emperor. A little later, the emperor entrusted him with the conquest of Italy from the Goths. Narses managed to defeat the Goths and destroy their kingdom, after which he was appointed to the post of Exarch of Italy.

Another special one that must not be forgotten is Belisarius's wife, Antonina, the chief-chamberlain and friend of Theodora. Procopius writes about her almost as badly as about the queen herself. She spent a stormy and shameful youth, but, being married to Belisarius, she was repeatedly at the center of court gossip because of her scandalous adventures. Everyone's surprise is the passion of Belisarius for her, which was attributed to witchcraft, and the condescension with which he forgave all the adventures of Antonina. Because of his wife, the commander was repeatedly involved in shameful, often criminal affairs that the empress carried out through her favorite.

Construction activity

The destruction that took place during Nike's rebellion allowed Justinian to rebuild and transform Constantinople. The emperor left his name in history by building a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture - the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia.

Conspiracies and uprisings

Nick's rebellion

The party scheme in Constantinople was laid down even before the accession of Justinian. Anastasius favored the "green" supporters of Monophysitism, the "blue" supporters of the Chalcedonian religion intensified under Justin they were also patronized by the new Empress Theodora. The energetic actions of Justinian, with the absolute arbitrariness of the bureaucracy, constantly growing taxes fueled the discontent of the people, further inflating the religious conflict. On January 13, 532, the actions of the "greens", which began with the usual complaints to the emperor about harassment by officials, turned into a violent rebellion demanding the removal of John of Cappadocia and Tribonian. After an unsuccessful attempt by the emperor to negotiate and the dismissal of Tribonian and his two other ministers, the spearhead of the rebellion was already directed at him. The rebels tried to overthrow Justinian directly and put Senator Hypatia, who was the nephew of the late Emperor Anastasius I, as the head of state. The "blues" joined the rebels. The slogan of the uprising was the cry "Nika!" ("Win!"), With which the circus wrestlers were encouraged. Despite the continuation of the uprising and the outbreak of riots in the streets of the city, Justinian, at the request of his wife Theodora, remained in Constantinople:

Relying on the racetrack, the rioters seemed invincible and effectively laid siege to Justinian in the palace. Only through the joint efforts of the combined troops of Belisarius and Mund, who remained loyal to the emperor, did they manage to knock the rebels out of their strongholds. Procopius says that up to 30,000 unarmed citizens were killed at the hippodrome. At the insistence of Theodora, Justinian executed Anastasius' nephews.

Artaban's conspiracy

During the uprising in Africa, Preyeka, the emperor's niece, the wife of the deceased governor, was captured by the rebels. When it seemed that there was no longer any deliverance, the savior appeared in the person of the young Armenian officer Artaban, who defeated Gontaris and freed the princess. On the way home, an affair broke out between the officer and Preyekta, and she promised him her hand. Upon his return to Constantinople, Artaban was graciously received by the emperor and showered with awards, appointed governor of Libya and commander of the federates - magister militum in praesenti comes foederatorum... In the midst of preparations for the wedding, all Artaban's hopes collapsed: his first wife appeared in the capital, whom he had long forgotten, and who did not think about returning to her husband while he was unknown. She came to the empress and prompted her to break off the engagement of Artaban and Preyeka and demand the reunification of the spouses. In addition, Theodora insisted on the imminent marriage of the princess with John, the son of Pompey and the grandson of Hypania. Artabanus was deeply hurt by the situation and even regretted serving the Romans.

Argyroprate Conspiracy

Main article: Argyroprate Conspiracy

State of the provinces

V Notitia dignatotum the civilian authority is separate from the military, each of them constitutes a separate department. This reform dates back to the time of Constantine the Great. In civil terms, the entire empire was divided into four regions (prefectures), which were headed by the praetorian prefects. Prefectures were subdivided into dioceses, ruled by deputy prefect ( vicarii praefectorum). The dioceses, in turn, were divided into provinces.

Having sat on the throne of Constantine, Justinian found the empire in a very cut-off form - the collapse of the empire, which began after the death of Theodosius, was only gaining momentum. The western part of the empire was divided by barbarian kingdoms, in Europe Byzantium held only the Balkans and even then without Dalmatia. In Asia, she owned the whole of Asia Minor, the Armenian Highlands, Syria to Euphrates, North Arabia, Palestine. In Africa, only Egypt and Cyrenaica could be held. In general, the empire was divided into 64 provinces combined into two prefectures - East (51 provinces1) and Illyricum (13 provinces). The situation in the provinces was extremely difficult. Egypt and Syria tended to secede. Alexandria was a stronghold of the Monophysites. Palestine was rocked by disputes between supporters and opponents of Origenism. Armenia was constantly threatened with war by the Sassanids, the Balkans were alarmed by the Ostrogoths and the growing Slavic peoples. Justinian had a lot of work ahead of him, even if he was only concerned with the preservation of borders.

Constantinople

Armenia

Main article: Armenia as part of Byzantium

Armenia, divided between Byzantium and Persia and being an arena of struggle between the two powers, was of great strategic importance for the empire.

From the point of view of military administration, Armenia was in a special position, evident from the fact that during the period under review there was only one dux in the Pontic diocese with its eleven provinces, dux Armeniae, whose power extended to three provinces, to Armenia I and II and the Polemonian Pontus. At the Dux of Armenia there were: 2 regiments of horse archers, 3 legions, 11 cavalry detachments of 600 people each, 10 infantry cohorts of 600 people each. Of these, cavalry, two legions and 4 cohorts were stationed directly in Armenia. At the beginning of Justinian's reign in Inner Armenia, a movement against the imperial authorities intensified, which resulted in an open uprising, the main reason for which, according to the testimony of Procopius of Caesarea, was burdensome taxes - the ruler of Armenia, Akaki, made illegal extortions and imposed an unprecedented tax on the country up to four Ceninarii. To remedy the situation, an imperial decree was adopted on the reorganization of the military administration in Armenia and the appointment as the military leader of the Sita region, giving him four legions. Arriving, Sita promised to plead with the emperor about the abolition of the new taxation, but as a result of the actions of the displaced local satraps, he was forced to fight the rebels and died. After the death of Sita, the emperor sent Vuzu against the Armenians, who, acting energetically, forced them to turn to the Persian king Khosrov the Great for protection.

During the entire reign of Justinian, an intensive military construction was carried out in Armenia. Of the four books of the treatise "On Buildings", one is completely devoted to Armenia.

As a follow-up to the reform, several decrees were issued to reduce the role of the traditional local aristocracy. Edict " On the order of inheritance among the Armenians”Abolished the tradition that only men could inherit. Novella 21 " That Armenians should follow Roman laws in everything”Repeats the provisions of the edict, specifying that the legal norms of Armenia should not differ from the imperial ones.

African provinces

Balkans

Italy

Relations with Jews and Samaritans

A significant number of laws issued in previous reigns are devoted to questions devoted to the status and legal features of the position of Jews in the empire. One of the most significant pre-Justinian collections of laws, the Code of Theodosius, created during the reign of the emperors Theodosius II and Valentinian III, contained 42 laws specifically dedicated to Jews. The legislation, although it limited the possibilities of promoting Judaism, granted rights to Jewish communities in cities.

From the first years of his reign, Justinian, guided by the principle of "One state, one religion, one law", limited the rights of representatives of other confessions. Novella 131 established that church law in its status is equal to the law of the state. Novella 537 established that Jews should be subject to full municipal taxes, but could not hold official positions. Synagogues collapsed; in the remaining synagogues it was forbidden to read the books of the Old Testament according to the ancient Hebrew text, which was to be replaced by a Greek or Latin translation. This caused a split among the Jewish priesthood, conservative priests laid sherry on the reformers. Judaism, according to the code of Justinian, was not considered heresy and belonged to the lat. religio licitis however, the Samaritans were included in the same category as the Gentiles and heretics. The Code prohibited heretics and Jews from testifying against Orthodox Christians.

All these oppressions caused at the beginning of the reign of Justinian an uprising in Palestine of the Jews and Samaritans close to them by faith under the leadership of Julian ben Sabar. With the help of the Ghassanid Arabs, the uprising was brutally suppressed in 531. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 thousand Samaritans were killed and enslaved, whose people almost disappeared as a result. According to John Malala, the remaining 50,000 people fled to Iran for help from Shah Kavad.

At the end of his reign, Justinian again turned to the Jewish question, and in 553 he published novella 146. The creation of the novella was caused by the ongoing conflict between Jewish traditionalists and reformers over the language of worship. Justinian, guided by the opinion of the Church Fathers that the Jews distorted the text of the Old Testament, banned the Talmud, as well as its commentaries (Gemara and Midrash). Only Greek texts were allowed, and the punishments for dissidents were increased.

Religious politics

Religious views

Perceiving himself as the heir to the Roman Caesars, Justinian considered it his duty to recreate the Roman Empire, while wishing that the state had one law and one faith. Based on the principle of absolute power, he believed that in a well-ordered state everything should be subject to imperial attention. Realizing the importance of the church for government, he made every effort to ensure that she did his will. The question of the primacy of Justinian's state or religious interests is debatable. It is known, at least, that the emperor was the author of numerous letters on religious topics addressed to popes and patriarchs, as well as treatises and church hymns.

In accordance with his desire, Justinian considered it his right not only to resolve issues related to the leadership of the church and its property, but also to establish a certain dogma among his subjects. Whichever religious direction the emperor adhered to, the same direction should have been followed by his subjects. Justinian regulated the life of the clergy, replaced the highest hierarchical positions at his discretion, acted as a mediator and judge in the clergy. He patronized the church in the person of its ministers, contributed to the construction of temples, monasteries, the multiplication of their privileges; finally, the emperor established religious unity among all subjects of the empire, gave the latter the norm of orthodox doctrine, participated in dogmatic disputes and gave the final decision on controversial dogmatic issues.

A similar policy of secular domination in religious and ecclesiastical affairs, down to the secret places religious beliefs man, especially clearly manifested by Justinian, received in history the name of Caesaropapism, and this emperor is considered one of the most typical representatives of this trend.

Modern researchers distinguish the following fundamental principles of Justinian's religious views:

Relations with Rome

Relations with Monophysites

Religiously, the reign of Justinian was opposition diphysites or Orthodox, if they are recognized as the dominant confession, and monophysites... Although the emperor was committed to Orthodoxy, he was above these differences, wanting to find a compromise and establish religious unity. On the other hand, his wife sympathized with the Monophysites.

During the period under review, Monophysitism, influential in the eastern provinces - in Syria and Egypt, was not united. There were at least two large groups- non-compromising akephals and those who accepted Zeno's Enotikon.

Monophysitism was declared heresy at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Byzantine emperors that preceded Justinian and the 6th century Flavius ​​Zeno and Anastasius I had a positive attitude towards Monophysitism, which only strained religious relations between Constantinople and the Roman bishops. Justin I reversed this trend and reaffirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine openly condemning Monophysitism. Justinian, who continued the religious policy of his uncle Justin, tried to impose absolute religious unity on his subjects, forcing them to accept compromises that would satisfy all parties. Towards the end of his life, Justinian began to take a harsher attitude towards the Monophysites, especially in the case of manifestation of attarodoketism, but he died before he could pass legislation that increased the importance of his dogmas.

Defeat of Origenism

Around the teachings of Origen, the spears of Alexandria were broken starting from the 3rd century. On the one hand, his works met with favorable attention from such great Fathers as John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nyssa, on the other hand, such great theologians as Peter of Alexandria, Epiphanius of Cyprus, Blessed Jerome smashed the Origenists, accusing them of paganism. Confusion in the controversy around Origen's teachings was brought about by the fact that the ideas of some of his followers who gravitated towards Gnosticism began to be attributed to him - the main accusations against the Origenists were that they allegedly preached transmigration of souls and apocatastasis. Nevertheless, the number of Origen's supporters grew, among them were such great theologians as the martyr Pamphilus (who wrote the Apology to Origen) and Eusebius of Caesarea, who had the Origen archive at his disposal.

The case with the defeat of Origenism dragged on for as long as 10 years. The future Pope Pelagius, who visited Palestine in the late 530s, passing through Constantinople, told Justinian that he did not find heresy in Origen, but that order should be brought to the Great Lavra. After the death of Saint Sava the Sanctified, Saints Kyriakos, John the Hesychast and Barsonuphius acted as defenders of the purity of monasticism. The Novolavr Origenists very quickly found influential supporters. In 541, under the leadership of Nonna and Bishop Leonty, they attacked the Great Lavra and beat its inhabitants. Some of them fled to the Patriarch of Antioch, Ephraim, who first condemned the Origenists at a council in 542.

With the support of Bishops Leontius, Domitian of Ancyra and Theodore of Caesarea, Nonnus demanded that Patriarch Peter of Jerusalem delete from the diptychs the name of Patriarch Ephraim of Antioch. This demand caused tremendous excitement in the Orthodox world. Fearing the influential patrons of the Origenists and realizing the impossibility of fulfilling their demands, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Peter, secretly summoned the archimandrites of the Great Lavra and the monastery of St. Theodosius Gelasius and Sophronius and ordered them to compose an essay against the Origenists, to which a petition would be attached to preserve the name of Ephochim in the diptychs. The patriarch sent this essay to the Emperor Justinian himself, enclosing his personal letter to him, in which he described in detail all the evil doctrines and iniquities of the Origenists. Patriarch Mina of Constantinople, and especially the representative of the Pope Pelagius, warmly supported the appeal of the inhabitants of the Lavra of St. Sava. On this occasion, in 543, a council was held in Constantinople, at which Domitian of Ancyra, Theodore Askis and the heresy of Origenism in general were condemned. ...

Fifth Ecumenical Council

Justinian's conciliatory policy towards the Monophysites caused discontent in Rome and Pope Agapit I arrived in Constantinople in 535, who, together with the orthodox party of Akimites, expressed a sharp rejection of the policy of Patriarch Anfim, and Justinian was forced to give up. Anfim was removed, and a convinced Orthodox presbyter Mina was appointed in his place.

Having made a concession on the question of the patriarch, Justinian did not abandon further attempts at reconciliation with the Monophysites. For this, the emperor raised the well-known question of the "three chapters", that is, about the three church writers of the 5th century, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrus and Iva of Edessa, regarding whom the Monophysites reproached the Chalcedon Cathedral for the fact that the above-named writers, despite their Nestorian way of thinking , were not condemned on it. Justinian acknowledged that in this case the Monophysites are right and that the Orthodox should make a concession to them.

This desire of the emperor aroused the indignation of the Western hierarchs, since they saw in this an encroachment on the authority of the Council of Chalcedon, after which a similar revision of the decisions of the Council of Nicaea could follow. The question also arose whether it is possible to anathematize the dead, because all three writers died in the previous century. Finally, some Westerners were of the opinion that the emperor, by his decree, was violating the conscience of church members. The latter doubt almost did not exist in the Eastern Church, where the interference of the imperial power in resolving dogmatic disputes was consolidated in a long-term practice. As a result, Justinian's decree did not receive general church significance.

In order to influence a positive solution to the issue, Justinian summoned the then Pope Vigil to Constantinople, where he lived for more than seven years. The original position of the pope, who upon arrival openly rebelled against the decree of Justinian and excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople Mina, changed and in 548 he issued a condemnation of three chapters, the so-called ludicatum, and thus joined his voice to the voice of the four Eastern patriarchs. However, the Western Church did not approve of Vigil's concessions. Under the influence of the Western Church, the Pope began to hesitate in his decision and took back ludicatum... In such circumstances, Justinian decided to resort to the convocation of an Ecumenical Council, which met in Constantinople in 553.

The results of the council were, on the whole, in line with the will of the emperor.

Relations with pagans

Justinian took steps to finally eradicate the remnants of paganism. In 529 he closed the famous philosophical school in Athens. This had a predominantly symbolic meaning, since by the time of the event this school had lost its leading position among the educational institutions of the empire after the University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century under Theodosius II. After the school was closed under Justinian, the Athenian professors were expelled, some of them moved to Persia, where they met an admirer of Plato in the person of Khosrov I; school property was confiscated. John of Ephesus wrote: “In the same year in which St. Benedict destroyed the last pagan national sanctuary in Italy, namely the Temple of Apollo in the sacred grove of Monte Cassino, and the stronghold of ancient paganism in Greece was also destroyed. Since then, Athens has finally lost its former significance as a cultural center and turned into a remote provincial city. Justinian did not achieve complete eradication of paganism; it continued to hide in some inaccessible areas. Procopius of Caesarea writes that the persecution of the pagans was carried out not so much out of a desire to establish Christianity, as out of a desire to seize the gold of pagan temples.

Reforms

Political views

Justinian succeeded to the throne without dispute, having managed to skillfully eliminate all prominent rivals in advance and gain the favor of influential groups of society; the church (even the popes) liked him for his strict Orthodoxy; he lured the senatorial aristocracy with the promise of support for all its privileges and carried away with the respectful affection of his address; with the luxury of celebrations and the generosity of the distribution, he won the affection of the capital's lower classes. The opinions of his contemporaries about Justinian were very different. Even in the assessment of Procopius, who serves as the main source for the history of the emperor, there are contradictions: in some works ("Wars" and "Buildings") he praises the excellent successes of Justinian's broad and daring conquest enterprises and admires his artistic genius, while in others ("The Secret history ") sharply blackens his memory, calling the emperor" an evil fool "(μωροκακοήθης). All this greatly complicates the reliable restoration of the spiritual image of the king. Undoubtedly, mental and moral contrasts were inharmoniously intertwined in Justinian's personality. He conceived the most extensive plans for increasing and strengthening the state, but did not possess sufficient creative powers to build them completely and completely; he claimed the role of a reformer, but could only well assimilate ideas that were not developed by him. He was simple, accessible and abstinent in his habits - and at the same time, due to conceit that grew out of success, he surrounded himself with the most pompous etiquette and unprecedented luxury. His straightforwardness and a certain kind-heartedness were gradually distorted by the deceit and deceit of the ruler, who was forced to constantly defend the successfully seized power from all kinds of dangers and attempts. The benevolence towards people, which he often showed, was spoiled by frequent revenge on enemies. Generosity towards disadvantaged classes was combined in him with greed and indiscriminate means of raising money to ensure representation that corresponded to his notions of dignity. The desire for justice, of which he constantly spoke, was suppressed by an exorbitant desire for domination and arrogance that grew on such soil. He made claims to unlimited authority, and his will in dangerous moments was often weak and indecisive; he fell under the influence not only of the strong character of his wife Theodora, but sometimes even of insignificant people, showing even cowardice. All these virtues and vices were gradually united around the prominent, pronounced tendency towards despotism. Under her influence, his piety turned into religious intolerance and was embodied in severe persecution for deviating from the faith he recognized. All this led to the results of a very mixed dignity, and they alone are difficult to explain why Justinian is numbered among the "great", and his reign acquired such great importance. The fact is that, in addition to these properties, Justinian possessed remarkable persistence in carrying out the accepted principles and positively phenomenal ability to work. He wanted every smallest order concerning the political and administrative, religious and mental life of the empire to come from him personally and every controversial issue in the same areas returned to him. The best interpretation of the historical figure of the tsar is the fact that this native of the dark mass of the provincial peasantry was able to firmly and firmly assimilate two grandiose ideas bequeathed to him by the tradition of the great world past: Roman (the idea of ​​a world monarchy) and Christian (the idea of ​​the kingdom of God). The unification of both into one theory and the implementation of the latter through the medium of the secular state constitutes the originality of the concept, which became the essence of the political doctrine of the Byzantine Empire; Justinian's case is the first attempt at formulating a system and implanting it in life. A world state created by the will of the autocratic sovereign - such was the dream cherished by the tsar from the very beginning of his reign. With weapons, he intended to return the lost old Roman territories, then - to give a general law, which will ensure the well-being of the inhabitants, and finally - to establish the faith that will unite all peoples in worship of the one true God. These are the three foundations on which Justinian hoped to build his power. He firmly believed in him: "there is nothing higher and holier than the imperial majesty"; "The creators of law themselves said that the will of the monarch has the force of law"; “Who can interpret the secrets and riddles of the law if not the one who alone can create it?”; "He alone is able to spend days and nights in labor and wakefulness in order to think about the welfare of the people." Even among the noble emperors, there was no person who, to a greater extent than Justinian, possessed a sense of imperial dignity and admiration for the Roman tradition. All his decrees and letters are filled with memories of Great Rome in the history of which he drew inspiration

Justinian was the first to clearly contrast the will of the people with “the mercy of God,” as the source of supreme power. Since his time, a theory has arisen about the emperor as "equal to the apostles" (ίσαπόστολος), receiving grace directly from God and standing above the state and above the church. God helps him to defeat enemies, to make fair laws. Justinian's wars are already acquiring the character of crusades (wherever the emperor is master, the right faith will shine). He places every act of his “under the protection of St. Trinity ". Justinian is, as it were, a forerunner or forerunner of a long chain of "God's anointed" in history. This building of power (Roman-Christian) inspired a broad initiative into Justinian's activities, made his will an attractive center and a point of application of many other energies, thanks to which his reign achieved really significant results. He himself said: "Until the time of our reign, God did not grant the Romans such victories ... Thank heaven, inhabitants of the whole world: in your days, a great work has come true, which God recognized as unworthy of the entire ancient world." Justinian left many evils unhealed, many new disasters were generated by his politics, but nevertheless, his greatness was glorified by the folk legend that arose in various areas almost under him. All countries that subsequently took advantage of his legislation magnified his glory.

State reforms

Simultaneously with military successes, Justinian began to strengthen the state apparatus and improved taxation. These reforms were so unpopular that they led to Nick's rebellion that nearly cost him his throne.

Administrative reforms were carried out:

• Combining civil and military positions.
• the prohibition of payment for positions, the increase in the salaries of officials testify to his desire to limit arbitrariness and corruption.
• The official was forbidden to buy land where he served.

Because he often worked at night, he was nicknamed "the sleepless sovereign" (Greek. βασιλεύς άκοιμητος ).

Legal reforms

One of Justinian's first projects was a large-scale legal reform initiated by him a little more than six months after accession to the throne.

Using the talent of his minister Tribonian, in the city of Justinian, he ordered a complete revision of Roman law, with the goal of making it as unsurpassed in formal legal terms as it was three centuries earlier. The three main pillars of Roman law - the Digests, the Code of Justinian and the Institutions - were completed in the city of

Economic reforms

Memory

In the old literature, it is often referred to as [ by whom?] Justinian the Great... The Orthodox Church is considered a saint, also revered by some [ who?] Protestant churches.

Board results

Emperor Justin II tried to characterize the outcome of his uncle's reign

"We found the treasury ravaged by debt and reduced to extreme poverty, and the army so upset that the state was left to incessant invasions and raids of barbarians."

According to Diehl, the second part of the emperor's reign was marked by a serious weakening of his attention to state affairs. The turning points in the life of the king were the plague, which Justinian suffered in 542, and the death of Fedora in 548. However, there is also a positive view of the results of the reign of the Emperor.

Image in literature

Panegyrics

Have reached our time literary works, written during the life of Justinian, which glorified either his reign as a whole, or some of his achievements. Usually they include: "Exhortatory chapters to the emperor Justinian" by deacon Agapit, "On the buildings" by Procopius of Caesarea, "Ecphrasis of St. Sophia" by Paul Silentiarius, "On earthquakes and fires" by Roman the Sweet singer and the anonymous "Dialogue on Political Science".

In The Divine Comedy

Other

• Nikolay Gumilyov. Poisoned Tunic... Play.
• Harold Lamb. "Theodora and the Emperor"... Novel.
• Nun Cassia (T.A. Senina). "Justinian and Theodora"... Story.
• Mikhail Kazovsky "Stomp of the Bronze Horse", historical novel (2008)
• Kay, Guy Gavriel, the Sarantia Mosaic dilogy - Emperor Valery II.
• V. D. Ivanov. "Primordial Rus". Novel. The adaptation of this novel is a film

During the reign of Justinian I (527 - 565), the Byzantine Empire reached the pinnacle of power. This emperor tried to restore the Roman Empire to its former borders.

By order of Emperor Justinian I in 528 - 534, a collection of laws "Code of Civil Law" was concluded, which united the old Roman legal norms and the spiritual values ​​of Christianity. "Code ..." proclaimed the equality of all citizens before the law. Although slavery was not abolished, it was forbidden to kill slaves and they received the opportunity to free themselves. Justinian's laws equalized human and woman rights, prohibited divorce, condemned by the Christian church. The "Code" proclaimed the idea of ​​unlimited and absolute power of the emperor: "the will of the emperor is the source of laws." The right to inviolability of private property was enshrined. "Code ..." became a model for the development of laws in most countries of Western Europe in the XII - XIV centuries. Kazhdan A.P., Litavrin G.G. Essays on the history of Byzantium and the South Slavs. SPb., "Aleteya", 1998 p 58

The transformations initiated by Justinian required significant funds. The rise in taxes, abuse and bribery of the imperial officials caused an uprising in 532 in Constantinople. The uprising was named "Nika" for the insurgents' slogan (Nika! - "Win!") The insurgents dominated the city for eight days. Justinian even thought of running away, but on Theodora's advice he stayed, declaring that he would rather die than lose power. The emperor bribed the leaders of the uprising, and with the help of detachments of barbarian mercenaries suppressed the uprising, killing about 35 thousand people.

Having suppressed the uprising, Justinian set about realizing the main goal of his life - the restoration of the Roman Empire in its former borders. It contributed to the realization of his plans that the barbarian kingdoms in the West were going through a deep crisis at that time.

In 534, the Byzantine army, led by the outstanding commander Belisarius, defeated the Vandals and captured North Africa. Further, the army of Belisarius, capturing about. Sicily, broke into Italy. The support of the Byzantines by the Christian Church and the population of Italy played a significant role. In 536, the army of Belisarius entered Rome without a fight, and in three years the Byzantines captured the capital of the barbarians - Ravenna. It seemed that Justinian had almost reached the cherished goal, but then the Slavs and Persians began to attack Byzantium, taking advantage of the presence of its troops in Italy. The emperor recalled Belisarius and sent him with an army to defend the eastern borders. The commander coped with this task. Before the conquest of lands in the West, Justinian returned only in 552. And although he managed to restore the borders of the Roman Empire during the time of the emperor Constantine, he almost doubled the territory of his state. Dil Sh. The main problems of Byzantine history. M., 1947 with 24

During the time of Justinian I, the temple of Hagia Sophia was built in Constantinople. Its construction, begun in 532, was provided by 10 thousand people for 5 years. Outside, the temple looked ordinary, but inside it was striking in size. A giant mosaic vault with a diameter of 31 meters seemed to hang in the air without any support. This was achieved by the fact that the large bathhouse was supported by two beerbans, each of which, in turn, was supported by three small beerbans. The four pillars holding the vault were hidden, and only the triangular sails between the arches were clearly visible. The cross on the vault symbolized God's guardianship and protection of the empire. When the temple was consecrated in 537, Emperor Justinian I, enchanted by its majestic beauty, exclaimed: "Praise be to the Lord, who inspired me to carry out such a deed! Solomon, I surpassed you! Kazhdan A.P., Litavrin G.G. Essays on the history of Byzantium and Southern Slavs. SPb., "Aletheya", 1998 with 64