Syria development. Syria

The area of ​​modern Syria is 185 180 sq. km, population - 17.6 million people (2003). In 1990, approximately 340,000 Palestinian refugees and their descendants lived on its territory. In 1967 approx. 1150 sq. km of Syrian territory in the Golan Heights, in southern Syria, were occupied by Israel.

NATURE

Terrain relief.

On the territory of Syria, which stretches from the Mediterranean Sea to the east through the northern part of the Syrian Desert, there are five natural regions: the Seaside Lowland, the Western Mountain Range, the Rift Zone, the Eastern Mountain Range, and the Plateau of Eastern Syria. The country is crossed by two large rivers - El-Asi (Orontes) and the Euphrates. The cultivated lands are mainly confined to the western regions - the coastal lowland, the Ansaria mountains and the valley of the El-Asi river, as well as to the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributaries.

Seaside lowland

stretches out in a narrow strip along the coast. In some places it is interrupted by rocky capes approaching the seashore, which are spurs of the Ansaria mountains. At its widest point, in the vicinity of Latakia, its length from east to west is 15-30 km.

Western mountain range.

Between the coastal lowland and the valley of the El-Asi River, confined to the rift zone, there is the Ansariya (Al-Nusayriyah) limestone ridge, which runs parallel to the sea coast from the border with Turkey in the north and almost to the border with Lebanon in the south. This ridge is approx. 65 km has an average altitude of 1200 m. Its highest point is Mount Nebi Younes (1561 m). The western, highly dissected mountain slopes, exposed to humid air currents from the Mediterranean Sea, receive a lot of precipitation. In these mountains, small rivers originate, which drain into the Mediterranean Sea. The rivers have developed deep valleys with steep sides. Many rivers dry up in summer. In the east, the Ansaria mountains drop abruptly, forming a ledge with a height of approx. 900 m. The eastern slope faces hot dry air masses and receives much less precipitation.

The Tripoli-Chomsky intermountain passage is located at the southern end of the Ansaria ridge. A road runs along it connecting the Lebanese port of Tripoli with the city of Homs; the El-Kebir River flows westward, which for many years has deposited a fertile layer of alluvium on the bottom of its valley.

Rift zone.

To the east of the Ansaria Ridge and to the north of the Tripoli-Chomsky Passage, the Rift Zone is 64 km long and 14.5 km wide, which is a continuation of the East African Rift System. The valley of the middle course of the El-Asi River is confined to this zone. The flat bottom of this graben, called El Gab, used to be swampy in places, but has now been drained. Due to the high fertility of soils, irrigated agriculture is developed here.

Eastern mountain range.

The Ez-Zawiya mountains adjoin El Gab directly from the east, which is a hilly surface with average heights of 460-600 m, the maximum elevations reach 900 m.

To the south of the Ansariya ridge, there are the Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) ranges, along which the border between Syria and Lebanon runs. These mountains are composed of porous limestones, which absorb the small amount of atmospheric moisture that the area receives. However, many springs come to the surface at the foothills, which are used for irrigation of lands in the vicinity of the capital. Within the Al-Sheikh ridge, on the border with Lebanon, there is the highest mountain of the same name in Syria (2814 m). The Anti-Lebanon and Al-Sheikh mountains are separated by the Barada River, which is used to supply water to the Damascus oasis.

Plateau of Eastern Syria.

The larger, eastern part of the country is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau. Its southern part is raised 300 m higher than the northern one. The surface of the plateau gradually decreases to the east from about 750 m east of the Antilevan ridge to less than 300 m in the Euphrates floodplain. The southern part of the plateau is composed of ancient lava fields. The most impressive landforms are the dome-shaped Ed-Druz mountains, rising to 1800 m. Most of the surrounding plateau is covered with coarse lava material formed from erupted rocks, which makes it difficult for the economic use of this territory. Only in the Hauran region (southwest of Damascus), where lava deposits are strongly weathered, fertile powerful soils have formed. To the east of the Ez-Zawiya mountains, the area becomes undulating. Its surface is gradually decreasing from about 460 m in the west to 300 m near the border with Iraq. In the north-east of the country, there are medium-altitude (more than 500 m above sea level) mountains Abd al-Azis (maximum height 920 m), which have a latitudinal strike. The entire territory of the plateau from north-west to north-east is crossed by the Euphrates River, which cuts to a depth of 30-60 m. To the north-east of the Syrian capital, a chain of rather low ridges stretches through the entire region, almost reaching the Euphrates near the city of Deir ez -Zor. Their height decreases to the east from 2000 m (Maalula ridge north of Damascus) to 800 m (Bishri Mountains, northwest of Deir ez-Zor). All these mountains are characterized by a deficit of atmospheric precipitation and sparse vegetation, which makes it possible to use them only as winter pastures.

Climate.

The climate of Syria is subtropical Mediterranean, in the interior regions - continental, arid. There is little rainfall, and they fall mainly in the winter season. Intensive evaporation is characteristic. High air humidity and a significant amount of precipitation are characteristic only of the coastal lowland and the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge.

Western Syria.

The climate of the coastal zone and the windward slopes of the Ansaria ridge is humid Mediterranean. The average annual precipitation is 750 mm, in the mountains it increases to 1000–1300 mm. The rainy season begins in October and lasts until March - early April, with a maximum intensity in January. There is almost no precipitation from May to September. At low altitudes in this season, the weather is uncomfortable for humans: during the day the air warms up to 30–35 ° C with high humidity. Higher in the mountains in summer, daytime temperatures are about 5 ° C lower than on the coast, and at night even 11 ° C.

Average winter temperatures are 13–15 ° C, below 0 ° C they fall only at some distance from the coastal lowland. Sometimes solid precipitation also falls, but snowfalls are common only for the upper mountain belt of the Ansariya ridge, where the snow cover can last for two to three months. Although winter is considered a rainy season, there are few rainy days, so during this period the weather is clear, and the daytime temperature rises to 18-21 ° C.

Eastern Syria.

Already on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Antilivan and Esh-Sheikh ranges, the average amount of precipitation decreases to 500 mm. In such conditions, steppes and semi-deserts dominate. Almost all rainfall occurs in winter, so winter crops can be grown without irrigation. Syrian desert, stretching east and south of steppe zone, receives less than 200 mm of precipitation per year.

The temperature range within the steppes and deserts is greater than on the Mediterranean coast. The average July temperature in Damascus, at the western end of the steppe zone, is 28 ° C, as in Aleppo, further east, while in Deir ez-Zor, located in the desert region, the average July temperature is 33 ° C. temperatures in July-August often exceed 38 ° C. After sunset, the temperature drops sharply, and air humidity decreases. Thus, despite the heat of the day, thanks to the cool, dry nights in the interior of the country in summer, the climate is more comfortable than on the coast. In winter, the steppe and desert regions are approximately 5.5 ° C cooler than in the coastal strip. Average winter temperatures in Damascus and Deir ez-Zor are 7 ° C, and Aleppa - 6 ° C. In the north of the steppe zone, frost and snow often occur, but in its southern regions, as well as in deserts, these climatic phenomena are less common. Nighttime temperatures in winter drop well below 0 ° C.

Water resources.

The eastern part of Syria in a southeast direction is crossed by the deep transit river Euphrates with the large left tributaries of the Belikh and Khabur. All these rivers originate in the mountains of Turkey. The length of the middle reaches of the Euphrates in Syria is 675 km. Its runoff is regulated by a dam. As a result of the construction of the dam, a large reservoir El-Assad was formed with a volume of approx. 12 billion cubic meters m. The largest river in the west of the country is El-Asi (Oronte), which originates in the mountains of Lebanon, flows through the depression of the Syrian graben and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Its length within Syria is 325 km. In addition, there are many small rivers in the Mediterranean basin, which are most abundant in the winter with rains and shallow in the summer. In the extreme northeast along the border with Iraq for approx. The Tigris river flows for 50 km. In addition, there are large lakes in the west of the country.

In areas with insufficient moisture, wells, springs, underground water accumulations and rivers are used for irrigated agriculture, due to which a significant share of electricity is generated in the country. About 12% of the cultivated land is irrigated, with approx. 20% of them are due to wells. On the rest of the irrigated lands, irrigation depends on the water regime of the Euphrates and its tributaries - Belikha and Khabur. But the hydro resources of the Euphrates are also widely used in the energy and agriculture of Turkey and Iraq, which lay claim to the waters of this river. This circumstance, along with the technical and financial problems of Syria itself and with droughts, did not allow to bring the area of ​​irrigated land and electricity production to the level that was envisaged by the construction of the Euphrates dam, which was completed in 1978. Large irrigation systems are also located on the Al-Asi and Yarmuk rivers (the waters of the latter used in conjunction with Jordan).

Flora and fauna.

Natural vegetation in Syria has undergone significant changes under strong anthropogenic impact. In the distant past, the Ansariya ridge in the west and the mountains in the north of the country were covered with forests. Later, they were replaced by secondary forests of low-growing conifers and deciduous species in better wetted sparsely populated areas and shrubs of the Mediterranean type in those coastal regions where agriculture was not developed. In Western Syria, in the least disturbed habitats on the mountain slopes, evergreen oaks, laurel, myrtle, oleander, magnolia, and ficuses prevail. There are groves of cypress, Aleppo pine, Lebanese cedar and juniper.

Along the Mediterranean coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton and sugar cane. Figs, mulberry trees, citrus fruits are grown in river valleys, and olives and grapes are grown on gentle slopes. Corn, barley and wheat are sown in the fields. Potatoes and vegetables are also grown. In the north, and partly on the eastern slopes of the ridge. Ansaria and others and in the low mountains internal parts The country has typical legume-cereal steppes, which serve as a fodder base for pasture cattle breeding (mainly sheep breeding). Wheat and barley, cotton are grown in the fields, and rice is grown under conditions of artificial irrigation.

In deserts, the landscape revives only after rain, when young shoots of grasses and dwarf shrubs and shrubs appear, which are mainly represented by saxaul, biyurgun, boyalich, wormwood. Nevertheless, even such a poor vegetation cover is sufficient to feed the camels, which are bred by nomads.

The fauna of Syria is not very diverse. Of the predators, sometimes there are wild cats, lynx, jackal, fox, striped hyena, caracal, in the steppes and semi-deserts there are many ferrets, among ungulates - antelope, gazelle, wild donkey onager. Rodents such as jerboas are numerous. Sometimes there are porcupines, hedgehogs, squirrels, hares are also found. Reptiles are characteristic: snakes, lizards, chameleons. The fauna of birds is diverse, especially in the Euphrates valley and near water bodies (flamingos, storks, seagulls, herons, geese, pelicans). All over the country there are larks, sand grouses, bustards, in cities and villages - sparrows and pigeons, in groves - cuckoos. Among the predators, there are eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls.

Soils.

Most of the country is occupied by gray soils, chestnut soils are widespread in the north and west, in the mountains in the west there are also areas of brown, the most fertile soils. They are confined to the coastal lowland and the lower slopes of the Ansaria ridge. Many soils are saline and gypsum.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition.

The overwhelming majority of the country's inhabitants are Arabic-speaking Syrian Arabs (approx. 90%). By religion, they are predominantly Muslim, but there are also Christians. The largest national minority is formed by the Kurds, who make up approx. 9% of the population. Most Kurds are concentrated in the foothills of the Taurus, north of Aleppo, and on the El Jazeera plateau, in the northeast. Kurds also formed communities in the vicinity of Jerablus and on the outskirts of Damascus. They speak their native Kurdish and Arabic and adhere, like the Syrian Arabs, to the Sunni direction in Islam. Most of the Kurds live in the countryside. Many Kurds are semi-nomadic. In cities (mainly in Damascus and Aleppo), the Kurds are primarily engaged in manual labor. Wealthy Kurds derive their income primarily from the ownership of real estate. Some Kurds have reached high office, but they practically do not engage in trade. The share of Armenians, the second largest national minority, in the population is 2-3%. Many Armenians are descendants of refugees from Turkey who arrived at the end of the 19th century, but most of them emigrated in 1925-1945. Armenians profess Christianity and have kept their customs, schools and newspapers. Almost all Armenians live in cities: mainly in Aleppo (75%), where they have a prominent place in economic life, in Damascus (15%) and Hasek. As a rule, Armenians are traders, small entrepreneurs and artisans, among them there are also many specialists with engineering and technical education and skilled workers, as well as people of free professions. There are also Turkmens and Circassians living in Syria. Turkmens are Muslims, wear Arabic clothes and speak Arabic. Initially, they led a nomadic lifestyle, but now they are mainly engaged in semi-nomadic herding on the El Jazeera plateau and in the Euphrates valley, near the Iraqi border, or in agriculture in the Aleppo region. The Circassians belong to the descendants of Muslim nomads who moved to Syria from the Caucasus after its conquest by the Russians in the late 19th century; they have retained most of their customs and their native language, although they also speak Arabic. About half of the Circassians lived in the governorate of El-Quneitra, but after the destruction of the administrative center of the same name by the Israelis in October 1973, many moved to Damascus. The smallest among the national minorities are nomadic Gypsies, Turks, Iranians, Assyrians, Jews (the latter are concentrated mainly in Damascus and Aleppo).

Demography.

Three general population censuses have been carried out in Syria. Its population, according to the first census of 1960, was 4565 thousand people, including 126.7 thousand Palestinian refugees. The corresponding figures for the 1970 census are 6294 thousand and 163.8 thousand, for the 1981 census - approx. 9.6 million and approx. 263 thousand refugees. As of July 2003, the population was 17.56 million. As a consequence of the rapid demographic growth, the majority of the country's population is young: 38.6% are under 15, 58.2% are between 15 and 65, and only 3.2% are older than this age. Girls got married early, women gave birth to an average of 7 children (by 2011 this figure had dropped to 2.94 children).

The population continued to grow at a rapid pace: in the 1960s - an average of 3.2%, in the 1970s - by 3.5%, in the 1980s - 3.6% per year, but in 2003 it dropped to 2. 45%. From the 1950s to the late 1980s, the birth rate was 45 per 1,000 inhabitants. At the same time, the mortality rate has gradually declined, from 2.1% in the early 1950s to 0.7% in the late 1980s, largely due to medical advances and a sharp decline in infant and child mortality. In 1945-1946, several thousand Armenians left Syria for the USSR, and after the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, most of the 30 thousand Jews who had previously lived in the country emigrated there. About 100,000 Palestinians settled in Syria after Israel's capture of Galilee.

Population for July 2004 - 18 million 017 thousand. Population growth - 2.4 (for 2004). The birth rate is 28.93 per 1000 people (2004). The mortality rate is 4.96 per 1000 people. Life expectancy for men is 68.47, for women - 71.02 years. Estimates of demographic indicators for 2010-2011 give the following figures: the population was 22 million 517 thousand 750 people (estimate July 2010).

Age structure: children under 14 years old - 35.2% (boys - 4 million 066 thousand 109, girls - 3 million 865 thousand 817); from 15 to 64 years - 61% (men - 6 million 985 thousand 067; women - 6 million 753 thousand 619 people); 65 years and older - 3.8% (men - 390 thousand 802, women - 456 thousand 336) (2011).

Median age: 21.9 years (males: 21.7 years, females: 22.1 years) (2011). Population growth rate: - 0.913% (2011) Fertility 23.99 births per 1000 population (2011). Mortality rate 3.68 deaths per 1000 population (July 2011). Life expectancy is 74.69 years (men - 72.31 years, women - 77.21 years (2011).

Cities.

The share of the urbanized population in the country increased from 40% in 1965 to 55% in 1998. In the capital Damascus in 1999 there were 3 million people, in Aleppo, as of 1994, 1.3 million people, in Homs - 750 thousand. in Hama - 450, Latakia - 380, Deir ez-Zor - 260, Haseke - 250, Raqqa - 230, Idlib - 200, Daraa - 160, Tartus - 150, Essaweid - 75 thousand people.

Population of the largest cities in Syria in 2009:
Aleppo - 2.985 million; Damascus - 2.527 million; Homs - 1 million 276; Hama 854 thousand people. In 2010 56% of the total population of the country live in cities. The rate of urbanization was 2.5% (in 2010–2015).

Religion.

At least 90% of the population of Syria is Muslim, with 75% being Sunnis, 13% being Alawites, and the rest being Shia Ismaili and Shiite Ismaili and Druze sects. Sunnism is practiced by Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Turks, Circassians. The Druze are concentrated in the mountainous region of Ed Druz, southeast of Damascus. Up to 10% of Syrians are Christian. The greatest influence among the Christians of the country is enjoyed by the Orthodox Greco-Byzantine and Armenian-Gregorian churches. There are also small communities of Jacobites, Maronites, Nestorians, Chaldeans, Protestants, and Catholics. Judaists and Yezidis (Yezidis) are extremely small. Compared to adherents of other religions, the Christian community has a higher proportion of urban dwellers and a more solid stratum of people who have received higher education, as well as representatives of highly paid "white collars" and people of the free professions.

STATE STRUCTURE

Syria is a presidential republic. It is distinguished by a centralized, strictly hierarchical system in which all power is concentrated in the hands of the country's president and the top leadership of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath). This system was created after the Ba'ath supporters seized power by force in 1963. From November 1970 to June 2000, the head of state was General Hafez Assad, the leader of the Baath military wing, who came to power in a coup d'état displacing the civilian leadership of the party. Hafez Assad has served as president, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, general secretary of the Baath regional leadership and chairman of the Progressive National Front, a coalition of parties that has a majority in the 250-member People's Council and serves as a unicameral parliament, which is elected by popular vote for a 4-year term. The last parliamentary elections were held in 2003.

Central government bodies.

The military who came to power, loyal to General Assad, soon convened a legislature - People's Council, before which the development of a draft permanent constitution was set as a priority task. It was to replace the country's provisional constitution, introduced in 1964 by Ba'ath, which was renewed in 1969. The deputies to the People's Council were nominated by the president and his closest advisers and were supposed to represent Ba'ath and its main left-wing allies - the Arab Socialist Union, the Syrian Communist Party, the Democratic Socialist the Unionist Party; and the Arab Socialist Movement. The People's Council also included a small number of independent members and representatives of the opposition forces. In March 1973, the People's Council presented a draft constitution for approval to the president, which was then submitted to a referendum. Under the new constitution, the People's Council is elected by direct and secret universal suffrage. All citizens who have reached the age of 18 are vested with the right to vote.

Elections to the People's Council are held in multi-member constituencies, and in each of them one part of the seats is allocated to workers and peasants, and the other - to representatives of other categories of the population. There is no formal nomination of candidates by political parties. In practice, the ruling Progressive National Front puts forward a general unofficial list of candidates; formally, all candidates are nominated and run individually. The voting results are determined by the majority system of the relative majority.

The powers of the parliament, according to the constitution, include adopting laws, discussing government policies, approving the state budget and plans for socio-economic development, ratifying major international treaties and agreements, and declaring a general amnesty. Only the People's Council is authorized to amend the constitution and the rules of procedure for its activities. At the same time, the Syrian constitution does not consistently delineate the subject framework of the legislative powers of the parliament, on the one hand, and the head of state, on the other.

The central place in the political system of Syria belongs to the head of state - the president of the republic. A candidate for this post is nominated by the People's Council on the proposal of the leadership of the Baath Party, after which the issue is submitted to a national referendum. To be elected for a 7-year term, it is enough to get the majority of votes of those who took part in the referendum.

After the death of Hafez Assad in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad was elected president of Syria. Born in 1965, he was educated as an ophthalmologist in Syria and the UK, and in 1994 he returned to the country, where he graduated from the military academy, became a close collaborator and heir to his father. Bashar al-Assad commanded the presidential guard and carried out important diplomatic assignments, called for the fight against corruption and led the Syrian computer society. Following the death of Hafez Assad in June 2000, parliament had to amend the constitution to lower the minimum age for a presidential candidate from 40 to 34. Then elected Secretary General Baath and nominated as a presidential candidate, received 97.3% of the vote in a referendum in July 2000 and officially took the presidency.

In accordance with the country's fundamental law, the President of Syria monitors the observance of the constitution and guarantees the operation of the state mechanism, develops (in agreement with the government) national policy and controls its implementation. He appoints and removes civil and military officials, including vice presidents, ministers, governors and high diplomats, enjoys the right to pardon and rehabilitate convicts, and is the supreme commander in chief. The President has the right to declare war, general mobilization and a state of emergency, can conclude peace agreements (if ratified by parliament), conclude and terminate international treaties.

The head of state has the right to convene extraordinary sessions of parliament, prepare bills and submit them for consideration by the People's Council. He can veto a law passed by the legislature, which needs at least two-thirds of the vote to override it. In extraordinary circumstances, the president himself can issue decrees-laws between sessions of parliament. The head of state has the right to directly submit bills to a referendum, bypassing parliament. Its powers include the dissolution of the People's Council, however, on a specific basis, such a decision can be made only once. Parliament can only hold the president accountable in the event of high treason.

The supreme executive and administrative body of the republic is the government (Council of Ministers), consisting of the chairman (prime minister), deputy and ministers. The Council of Ministers controls the work of the state executive apparatus and state corporations, oversees the implementation of laws, together with the president participates in the development of state policy and implements it, develops draft budgets, development plans and laws, ensures the country's security, etc. The prime minister and ministers are responsible only to the president. Prime Minister since 2000 - Mohammed Mustafa Miro.

Local authorities.

Administratively, Syria is divided into 14 governorates (governorates), headed by governors, who are approved by the president on the proposal of the minister of internal affairs. Governors have governors' councils, 1/4 of whose deputies are appointed by the governor and the minister of internal affairs, and 3/4 are elected by the population for a four-year term. The Minister of the Interior appoints to these Councils from 6 to 10 deputies, who are members of the Executive Committees of the provinces, which carry out the day-to-day supervision of the local administration.

Municipal Councils direct the activities of city services, issue business licenses, and establish local taxes. These Councils are headed by mayors appointed by governors of governorates, and in small towns by heads of districts. In 1987 Damascus, which had a special capital status, was merged with the adjacent governorate of the same name into a single administrative unit.

Political parties.

Arab Socialist Renaissance Party(Baath) is the ruling and dominant party in the country. Founded in 1947 by Michel Aflak and Salah Bitar as the Arab Renaissance Party (Baath), after merging with the Arab Socialist Party in 1954 it received its current name. The party's ideology is pan-Arab nationalism. Its main goal is the unification of all Arab states into one, the reunification of the Arab nation, "artificially" divided by the colonialists, and the return of its "former greatness". An important place in the program of the Baath is occupied by the "liberation of Palestine." The main slogan of the party: "The Arab nation is one, its mission is immortal." Baath also proclaims the principles of "freedom" and "Arab socialism." By the early 1960s, party branches were created in most Arab countries (they became especially influential in Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, Yemen, etc.). In February 1963, the Baathists seized power in Iraq and established a brutal dictatorship in the country, but their regime was overthrown by the Iraqi army in November of the same year. In Syria, the Baath Party came to power in March 1963 in a coup d'état. Soon, a fierce struggle broke out between the all-Arab and Syrian "regional" leaders of the party. In 1965 M. Aflyak and S. Bitar removed the more "leftist" Syrian leaders, who enjoyed the support of young army officers. In February 1966, as a result of a new coup in Syria, the "left" faction Baath came to power, calling for the establishment of "people's control" over production, cooperation with all "truly socialist, unionist and progressive elements", including the communists and the states of the Soviet bloc, as well as to the unification of the Arab states "on socialist foundations." The victorious faction deposed Aflak and Bitar. The local Baath wing that came to power in Iraq in 1968 did not recognize the new all-Arab leadership created by the Syrians, and the party split into the pro-Syrian and pro-Iraqi wings. The Baath sections in the various Arab countries were divided accordingly. In 1970, the "military" wing headed by Hafez Assad came to the leadership of the Syrian wing of the party. Under the leadership of the Baath in Syria, a bloc of pro-government parties and organizations, the Progressive National Front (PNF), was created in 1972. In the People's Council, the Baath has 135 out of 250 seats. The party's general secretary is Bashar al-Assad, President of Syria.

Syrian Communist Party(UPC) - the former pro-Soviet, created in 1924. In the 1940s and 1950s it was one of the most organized and influential political forces in Syria, however, it was greatly weakened as a result of repressions during the period of unification with Egypt (1958-1961), and then ousted by the Baathists from those spheres of public life in which the communists have traditionally exercised influence. In 1972, a split occurred in the UPC: the faction headed by Khaled Baghdash cooperated with the Assad government and joined the PNF, the R. Turki grouping (“UPC - Politburo”) announced its opposition, and its leaders were later arrested. Then another faction of M. Yusef (“UPC - Basic Organizations”) separated from the UPC, which also refused to participate in the PFP.

In 1986, the pro-government faction of the UPC split. The groupings of H. Bagdash and Y. Faisal were formed in it (the latter relied on younger party cadres). There are no major differences between the two organizations. Both of them remain in the PNF and have 4 seats in the People's Council.

Arab Socialist Movement(Das) - formed in 1950 as the Arab Socialist Party (ASP) under the leadership of A. Haurani. The ASP relied on peasants, part of the workers and shopkeepers and, like the Baath Party, called for the achievement of Arab unity and "Arab socialism." In 1954 the ASP merged with Baath. In 1962, after Syria's withdrawal from the state union with Egypt, Hawrani and his supporters were expelled from the Baath Party due to their categorical refusal to focus on restoring the union state. Subsequently, the organization split into several factions; some of them joined the PNF and the government. The DAS wing, which cooperates with the government, has 4 seats in the People's Council.

Arab Socialist Union(ACC) - one of the organizations of "unionists" (followers of the former leader of Egypt Gemal Abdel Nasser). The ACC was formed in 1964 and advocated "Arab socialism" and unification with Egypt. The party split into 2 factions, one of which became part of the Popular Front and the Assad government. ACC has 7 seats in the People's Council.

Socialist Unionist Party(PSU) - nasserist. Included in PNF, according to software settings it is close to ACC and Baas. Has 7 seats in the People's Council.

Socialist Unionist Democratic Party(SUDP) - nasserist. Included in the PNF, has 4 seats in the People's Council.

Syrian National Socialist Party(SNSP) - created in Lebanon in 1932 as a secret organization influenced by the ideology and organizational forms of European fascism. The party declared its goal to create the state of "Greater Syria", which was to cover the territory of Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, Palestine and Kuwait. The main forces of the SNSP were in Lebanon, where it enjoyed significant influence, created its own paramilitaries after World War II and participated in a number of coup d'état attempts. In the early 1960s, a certain evolution took place in the views of the party leadership. Without giving up on the whole from the extreme right-wing views, it borrowed some Marxist and pan-Arabist postulates. At the end of the 20th century. part of the party's factions in Lebanon began to focus on cooperation with the Syrian government. In 2000, the activities of the SNSP were allowed in Syria, it was accepted into the PNF. Has 2 seats in the People's Council.

They are not part of the PNF and operate semi-legally or illegally:

Arab Socialist Democratic Revival Party (PASDV) formed in 1970 by adherents of the "left" wing of the Baath Party, headed by S. Jedid, ousted from power by H. Assad. Its program and main objectives are essentially identical to the Baath Platform. The party advocated the removal of the Assad regime, not excluding armed methods of struggle.

Communist Action Party of Syria(PKDS) - was created in the late 1970s as the League of Communist Action; it received its current name in 1980. The party included adherents of "unorthodox Marxism" standing "to the left of the historically established UPC." Considering the regime of H. Assad "bourgeois" and "anti-popular", the PKDS sought to overthrow it and replace it with a "revolutionary democratic government led by the popular front." The slogan "Arab unity" rejects as "reactionary".

National Democratic Association- a bloc of opposition parties and organizations. Includes PASDV, PKDS, Arab Revolutionary Workers' Party in Syria, Democratic Arab Socialist Union in Syria(ACC faction), DAS faction and "UPC - Politburo".

Acts independently National Committee for the Unity of Syrian Communists.

The basis of the Muslim fundamentalist opposition is the Syrian branch of the all-Arab organization " Muslim Brothers", Which arose in the late 1930s. Since the late 1960s, the radical wing of the Islamists, led by Marwan Hadid, has become active in northern Syria; In the 1970s, underground cells arose that began an armed struggle against the Baath regime. The impetus for their anti-government actions was the belonging of the family of President Assad and many of his entourage to the Alawite religious community, whose views are sharply different from orthodox Islam. The Islamists also sought the abolition of the law on agrarian reform, denationalization and weakening of state control over foreign trade and prices. In June 1979, the Muslim Brotherhood killed more than 60 cadets at the Aleppo military school, and in 1982 raised a major uprising in Hama, which was suppressed by Syrian troops. Thousands of people died during the suppression. After the defeat, the network of cells of the "brotherhood" in Syria practically ceased to exist, the center of its activity moved to Iraq and European countries. In Damascus, an apolitical union of "brothers" has survived.

Judicial system

includes courts for personal status, juvenile affairs, magistrates' courts, courts of first instance, appeal and cassation courts. The Court of Cassation in Damascus serves as the highest court of justice, making the final decisions on protests and appeals against decisions of all lower courts. The personal status courts are divided into Sharia courts, a Druze court, and a non-Muslim community court. The Magistrates' Courts deal with minor civil commercial and criminal cases. More serious cases are heard in the courts of first instance. The courts of appeal operate in the administrative centers of the governorates and accept appeals from the decisions of the lower courts. In addition, there is a system of military courts dealing with military crimes. The appointment, relocation and removal of members of all these courts falls within the purview of the Superior Council of Magistrates. The country has a Supreme Constitutional Court composed of five judges appointed by the President for a four-year term. This authority considers issues related to elections and the constitutionality of laws and decrees adopted by the President and the People's Council. The Supreme Constitutional Court has no right to annul laws passed in referendums.

The Supreme Court of State Security and the Court of Economic Security also operate in Syria. Usually cases in these courts are considered in closed hearings.

Military establishment

Syria consists of ground forces, numbering at the beginning of the 1990s approx. 300 thousand people, the air force (Air Force, 80 thousand people), the naval forces (navy, about 4 thousand people) and irregular formations to protect the rear, gendarmerie and special security forces involved in the protection of the president , government and government agencies. The draft age for military service is 19 years, the service life in the ground forces and the air force is 30 months, and in the navy - 18 months. According to the constitution, the president of the country is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Since the early 1990s, an approximately 30,000-strong Syrian military group has been in Lebanon, mainly in the Bekaa Valley and around Beirut and Tripoli. According to official figures, in fiscal year 1997, budgetary military spending was approximately $ 800 million - $ 1 billion, or 5.9% of GDP.

Foreign policy.

The first Baathist government (March 1963 - February 1966) followed the principles of non-alignment, pan-Arab unity and the construction of an Arab version of "socialism". This government maintained a kind of balance between the military and the civilian wing of the Baath. The situation changed completely in February 1966. Baath founders Michel Aflak and Salah Bitar were forced to flee Syria after the leaders of the coup, Salah Jadid and Hafez Assad, sentenced them to death. The new regime was illegitimate and, in order to assert itself, undertook a series of military adventures on the border with Israel, which ultimately led to the Arab-Israeli war on June 5, 1967, as a result of which Syria lost the Golan Heights. In November 1970, Defense Minister Hafez Assad became the absolute ruler of Syria, whose power was further strengthened when he became president of the country in March 1971.

On October 6, 1973, Syria, together with Egypt, launched a coordinated offensive against Israel. In the early days of the war, the Syrian army achieved some success in reclaiming the Golan Heights, but eventually Syria lost even more territory. Thanks to active American mediation, Israel withdrew its troops from part of the lands it occupied, as well as from the city of Al-Quneitra in the Golan Heights, which was due to the Syrian-Israeli agreement signed on May 31, 1974, which actually defined the border between Syria and Israel. In June 1976, Syria took part in the settlement of the internal political conflict in Lebanon and sent troops there as part of the inter-Arab deterrent forces.

In 1980, Syria signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation with the USSR, which remained in effect after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Syria was one of the few Arab countries to support Iran in its long war with Iraq in the 1980s, and continues to be Iran's closest partner.

In February 1987, Syria, which retained a 25,000-strong contingent of peacekeeping forces in Lebanon, sent an additional 7,000-strong army to the Muslim sector of Beirut to maintain order. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, Syria sent troops to Saudi Arabia and subsequently joined the anti-Iraqi coalition. In October 1990, Syria took an active part in the suppression of Christian demonstrations in eastern Beirut and thereby helped to restore order in the Lebanese capital. Syria took an active part in the settlement of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.

ECONOMY

Production structure.

Syria is characterized by a mixed economy with a high share of the public sector (about 50% of national income, 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of fixed assets). For a long time, finance, energy, railroad and air transport were entirely under the jurisdiction of the state. Private ownership is clearly dominant in agriculture, and also includes small and medium-sized trade enterprises, services, motor vehicles and housing. The annual growth of GNP in the mid-1990s was estimated at 3.6%. In 2003, GDP growth amounted to 0.9%, i.e. 58.01 billion USD, per capita income amounted to USD 3300. According to 2003 data, the GDP was divided by sectors as follows: agriculture - 28.5%, industry - 29.4% and other services - 42.1%.

Economic growth slowed to 1.8% in 2009 due to the global economic crisis affecting world oil prices and the economies of Syria's key partners. Despite some economic reforms, long-term economic constraints mean reduced oil production, high unemployment, growing budget deficits, and increased pressure on water resources due to intensive agricultural use.

GDP per capita in 2010 amounted to USD 4,800, compared to USD 4,700 in 2009 and USD 4,600 in 2008. GDP per capita in 2010 was distributed as follows: agriculture 17.6%, industry 26.8%, sphere services 55.6%.

Syria is a major center for maritime and land trade. In this regard, such an industry as storage has developed. Large oil storage facilities have been built at oil refineries in Khoms and Baniyas, at the oil loading terminal of the port of Baniyas, etc. building materials, large elevators have been built.

Labor resources.

About 30% of the working-age population of Syria is employed in the public sector; the state's share as an employer began to decline in the late 1980s, when measures were taken to cut budget spending, including for the maintenance of state institutions. In agriculture, where 52% of the total labor force was employed, this figure fell to 20% in 1995. At the same time, in industry (including construction, energy, gas production and water supply), it increased from 20% to 34%, and in the service sector - from 28% to 42%. Many Syrians are employed in the public sector - in institutions or businesses. Both urban and rural residents are often involved in seasonal activities. In 1998, an estimated 12-15% of the working-age population was unemployed. Since the 1970s, many skilled workers and specialists have traveled to the oil-producing countries of the Persian Gulf in search of work. The migration process contributed to a decrease in the unemployment rate and an influx of foreign exchange into the country, but at the same time created a serious shortage of qualified personnel.

In 2008, agriculture employed 17% of the total workforce, industry 16% and services 67%. The unemployment rate was 8.3% (2010).

Mining industry.

Syria is not a major oil producer. Nevertheless, since 1974, oil has become a major source of export earnings. The most developed are the oil and gas industries. In the mid-1990s, approx. 66.5–80 thousand tons of liquid fuel. In 1997, oil production amounted to 30 million tons. The largest fields are located in the extreme northeast (in Karachuk, Suvaidiya, Rumailan and the vicinity of Deir ez-Zor). In the northeast and east, in the Euphrates valley, the development of deposits began in the late 1960s, and in the Deir ez-Zor region, where especially high-quality light oil is produced, in the 1980s and 1990s. Natural gas is also being produced, including the accompanying oil fields (5 billion cubic meters were produced in 1997). The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.

Syria is the largest producer of phosphate rock, which is being mined in the Hneifis area near Tadmore. Their reserves are estimated at 1 trillion. t with a phosphate content of 22 to 72%. Approx. 15 million tons. Most of the production is exported, the rest is used domestically for the production of fertilizers. There are also explored deposits of iron ore (Raju, Bludan - Zabdani, El-Kadmus), natural asphalt (near Latakia), chromium, uranium, manganese, lead, copper, sulfur, asbestos, dolomite, limestone, tuff, basalt. Salt (Tadmor, Jerud, El-Jabbul deposits) and sulfur are being mined. Many hot mineral springs are located and exploited in Syria.

Energy.

More than half of electricity (57%) is produced at hydroelectric power plants, and at thermal power plants that use oil as fuel - 43%. The largest hydropower plants were built in the mid-1970s, when the Euphrates Dam was erected. Their design capacity is 800 million kW, but due to technical difficulties and low water levels, they are less than half loaded. In 1998, 17.5 billion kW of electricity were produced. In 1998, 17.5 billion kW of electricity were produced, in 2007 - 36.5 billion kW of electricity.

Manufacturing industry.

In the early 1990s, all the leading industries, primarily heavy industry, were at the disposal of the state. The state also owned key enterprises in the food, sugar, textile industries, as well as in the production of building materials, plastics, glass, chemical fertilizers, tobacco products, and in the assembly of televisions from imported parts. The most developed are the oil refining, electric power, food, textile, chemical, electrical and construction materials industries.

Measures to modernize infrastructure and increase the capacity of the domestic market indirectly contributed to the development of private entrepreneurship. Its position was particularly strengthened in the production of textiles, clothing, leather goods, paper, soap and chemicals. The private sector began to produce electrical goods, including refrigerators, and manufacturing equipment, as well as products intended to replace imports, such as cosmetics and detergents. Most private industrial enterprises are small, employing fewer than 10 people, usually family members.

Agriculture.

Agriculture employs approx. 50% of the economically active population. Agriculture produces most of the food consumed in the country and a significant share of raw materials for industry, in particular cotton and sugar beets.

Arable land covers approx. 30% of the country's area. It is a narrow coastal strip with fertile soil and high moisture, where fruits, olives, tobacco and cotton are grown; the valley of the El-Asi river, where various crops are cultivated under irrigation conditions; the semi-arid highlands, which stretches from the Golan Heights and Damascus to the border with Turkey, north of Aleppo, and reaches in the east to Haseke, where a significant part of Syrian wheat and barley is produced on dry land, and cotton is produced on an irrigated wedge; valley of the Euphrates.

The main grain crops - wheat and barley - occupy approx. 2.5 million hectares, or almost half of all sown areas. The most important place among industrial crops is cotton, which is usually sown with 130-180 thousand hectares, depending on weather conditions and the prevailing prices for fiber. They also grow corn, sugar beets for local sugar refineries, millet, legumes, fruit and oilseeds. The livestock population includes more than 12 million sheep, 1 million goats, 700 thousand head of cattle and more than 14 million chickens. Livestock provides almost a third of agricultural products.

The largest irrigation project in Syria involved the construction of the Euphrates Dam, after which it was planned to double the area of ​​irrigated land by 2000 compared to the end of the 1970s. However, the emerging problems, in particular the gypsum content of the soils and the low water level in the reservoir (due in part to the large withdrawal of water from the Euphrates upstream - in the Keban Dam zone in Turkey) prevented the achievement of the task. In December 1992, the European Investment Bank agreed to finance the construction of the Et-Tora earthen dam on the river. Es-Sanobar for additional irrigation of 10.5 thousand hectares of arable land in Latakia governorate.

Transport.

Syria has a well-developed road and rail system. Most of the highways, which carry over 90% of domestic freight and passenger traffic, are paved. The main highways also serve for the transit of goods from neighboring Arab countries to Turkey and Europe. In the mid-1990s, the length of paved roads was 28 thousand km, and the length of railways was increased to almost 2,750 km. To date, they have linked the country's main Mediterranean port of Latakia with the port of Tartus and through Aleppo with the border town of Al-Qamishli in the north-east of the country. The railway connects Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Damascus, as well as Homs with phosphorite deposits in the vicinity of Tadmore (Palmyra). The largest seaports are Latakia, Tartus and Baniyas. The only airline operating in the country is Sirien Arab Airlines. There are international airports in Damascus and Aleppo, local ones in Tadmore, Deir ez-Zor, Latakia and Al-Qamishli.

Oil pipelines.

The main pipeline running through the country stretches from the oil fields of northern Iraq to the Mediterranean harbors of Baniyas and Tripoli (in Lebanon). This route also supplied oil to the largest Syrian processing center in Homs. Disagreements over payments for the transit of Iraqi crude oil led to Iraq's refusal to use the pipeline in 1976-1979, while Syria, in turn, closed it in 1982 in support of Iran in its war against Iraq. Oil pipelines are also laid from the Syrian fields in the northeast to the port of Tartus and to Homs, and oil product pipelines connect the processing complexes in Homs and Baniyas with Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia.

Foreign trade and debt.

Syria buys more goods from abroad than it exports. Food, industrial products, including cars, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, timber, factory equipment, electrical goods, medicines, paper, as well as significant amounts of crude oil and oil products are imported into the country (since domestic enterprises process light fractions oil produced in Iraq and Saudi Arabia). Arabia). Syrian exports consist mainly of oil and petroleum products, cotton, cotton yarn, textiles and leather products, phosphates, detergents, perfumes and food products such as pulses, vegetables, and livestock products. The country spends large sums of money on the purchase of weapons. In the late 1980s, even after a sharp decline in imports of capital goods, oil products, grain, sugar and other goods, Syria had to resort to external borrowing to cover the trade deficit and rely on foreign aid and remittances from Syrians working abroad. The main foreign trade partners are the EU countries, Japan, Iran. Contacts are being established with the states of Eastern Europe, the USA, and the PRC. There are long-standing ties with Russia. With the help of the USSR, more than 40 industrial facilities were built, an oil refining complex, irrigation facilities, railways, high-voltage power lines, and the Euphrates hydropower complex were created.

At the end of 1999, the estimated total external debt of Syria was approx. USD 22 billion, including approx. $ 10 billion to the states of the former socialist camp, which provided loans to Syria for the purchase of military equipment and for the implementation of major economic projects, including hydraulic engineering on the Euphrates.

Banking system.

Banking activities during the reign of Hafez Assad were entirely under the control of the state. It included the Central Bank, which issues money (the Syrian pound), and five sectoral banks - Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural, Cooperative, Mortgage, and the People's Credit Bank. Banking liberalization began in mid-2000.

The country's economic growth slowed to 1.8% in 2009 due to the global economic crisis affecting world oil prices and the economies of Syria's key partners. Damascus has implemented some economic reforms in the past few years, including those related to cutting interest rates on lending, opening private banks, and consolidating all multiple exchange rates.

In 2009, a stock exchange was established in Damascus. In addition, the president signed legislation encouraging corporate property reform and allowing the central bank to issue Treasury bills and government debt.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Social structure of the population.

The majority of the country's inhabitants are industrial and agricultural workers and members of their families, a little less than half of the total population are villagers, and a very small share are nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists. Peasants living in villages work on their own or leased land, but many are forced to be content with agricultural work for hire. The government is taking steps to improve living standards in rural areas: roads and schools have been built, and an extensive electrification program has been implemented.

Lifestyle.

The rural population's diet consists mainly of bread, rice, fermented milk products, cheese, olives and onions. Pumpkin, peas, watermelon, figs, dates and grapes are added to them, and meat on holidays. Eat better and constantly have in the diet meat dishes higher income landowners, and skilled workers and traders in cities. The most famous dishes of the national cuisine are kibbe (minced veal in a shell of wheat grits), meshvi (lamb roasted on a spit), hummos (mashed peas) and kunafa (a sweet dough dish with cheese, cream and nuts, drenched in syrup).

The urban dwellers from the middle and upper strata of society prefer to wear European clothes, while in the countryside they wear long robes with traditional headdresses. Houses in villages in northwestern Syria are constructed of clay and straw in the form of beehives; dwellings in the southern and eastern regions are built of stone, which is also typical of wealthy urban areas. The middle class of citizens lives in apartment buildings built of cinder block structures and reinforced concrete, and the poor often settle on wastelands, where they erect shacks from improvised material - sheet metal and corrugated iron.

Bedouins travel by traditional annual routes within their tribal territories, freely crossing national borders. Semi-nomads, engaged in raising sheep and goats, drive their flocks in winter, but in summer they move to a sedentary lifestyle and turn to agriculture. Both of these groups live in felt tents, and their diet contains much more milk and meat than the peasants.

Traditionally, the headman was in charge of all the affairs of the village. The heads of the remaining households served as an advisory body to him. Family and religious values, veneration of the elderly, hospitality and generosity are preserved in the village, while suspicion of strangers has not been lost. Family ties remain the fundamental basis of social relations. Inheritance occurs by male line... After getting married, women move in with their spouses. Average townspeople live in small families in separate apartments, but maintain close contacts with a large circle of relatives.

Marriages are often contracted without first meeting the bride and groom. The groom has the right to take care of the bride only after the engagement and only in the presence of friends or relatives. It is customary among Muslims to give a ransom for a bride. Christians believe that the groom must provide the bride with a room (or, if funds permit, a separate dwelling). The bride's family, whether Muslim or Christian, is required to collect a dowry, which includes clothing, jewelry and household items.

Usually a man has one wife, although Islamic law allows for up to four wives and divorces. However, this procedure is currently being formalized through a civil court. For Christians, divorce is difficult and polygamy is not allowed.

The situation of women.

With the exception of middle-class townspeople, in whom each small family has its own home, the newlywed moves to her husband's family, where the authority of the parents reigns. Women's daily life revolves around the home; it will be diversified by meetings with relatives, visiting a well or a current for threshing grain in the village, and going to shops in the city. Women dress modestly and almost always go out in a company of two or three people. At one time, the use of a face cover was a generally accepted practice, but today it is not widespread. Many city dwellers prefer to wear a hijab, a scarf that covers their hair as a symbol of Islam.

A woman should remain chaste until marriage and faithful to her husband. Bedouins usually get married very early, before the age of 14, rural women and girls from working families - between the ages of 14-18, and representatives of the middle and upper classes, regardless of religion - after 18 years. Compared to men, women generally have a lower status in society, which gradually began to rise due to their more active participation in public life and changes in legislation. Girls under the age of 15 are not allowed to marry, and women have the right to file for divorce and be entitled to compensation if husbands unreasonably demand a divorce. If a man wishes to have more than one wife, the judge must ensure that the spouse is able to provide his wives with decent support.

Public organizations and movements.

The ruling Party of Arab Socialist Revival (Baath) encourages the political and social activity of citizens, encouraging them to join various public organizations. Among them are the General Federation of Peasants, the General Federation of Workers' Trade Unions, the Union of Revolutionary Youth, the National Union of Students, and women's associations. In addition, paramilitary organizations have been created, in which various segments of the population are involved, whose tasks include civil defense and the protection of the country from spies and saboteurs.

The main structure of national importance is the army. The country has universal military service for men who have reached 19 years of age.

Trade unions comprise approximately 17% of those employed outside of agriculture. Most union members work in government offices, construction, textiles and transportation. The largest trade unions are in Damascus and Aleppo. The government encourages and supports trade unions by providing opportunities to participate in the management of state-owned enterprises.

Social Security.

A number of social services are provided by voluntary charitable organizations that are overseen by the relevant ministries. Assistance to low-income citizens falls mainly on the shoulders of relatives.

CULTURE

Education system.

Schools and higher education institutions are under the control of the respective ministries. Primary education is free and compulsory. All children are required to attend six-year elementary school. After graduation, they can enter secondary school, which consists of two stages with three years of study in each: preparatory (incomplete secondary) and complete secondary. To enroll in public secondary schools at both levels, where education is also free, you must pass entrance exams.

Some children continue their education in private schools, funded in part by foreign grants, and in UN-sponsored schools for Palestinian refugee children. Textbooks, curricula, and teaching in the private sector are controlled by the Ministry of Education.

There are four universities in the country: in Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia ("Tishrin") and Homs ("Al-Baath"). Of these, the oldest and largest is the capital, founded in 1923 and with 81 thousand students in the mid-1990s. At the largest Aleppo University, opened in 1960, approx. 60 thousand people. There are several technical training institutes.

Museums and Historical Monuments.

The National Museum of Northern Syria in Aleppo contains sculptures, jewelry and household utensils of the Sumerian, Hittite, Assyrian and Phoenician periods, monuments of the Hellenistic, Roman and Arab cultures. On the Mediterranean coast in the Latakia region are the ruins of the Phoenician city-states, the most famous of which, Ugarit, was discovered during the excavation of the Ras Shamra hill.

Roman heritage can be seen in theatrical performances that take place every summer as part of the festival in the city of Busra al-Hariri in southern Syria.

In the west of the country, roads, canals, dams and aqueducts have survived from this period, some of which are still in use. Of the architectural monuments of Damascus, the most famous are the Umayyad Mosque (built in 705-715), the National Museum, the Azema Palace (now the Museum of Folk Art), which displays household items and clothing of the 18th century. and modern products of artisans from various regions of the country, the medieval dervish shelter Sulaimaniyah, the mausoleum of Salah ad-Din, the house of St. Ananias, chapel of st. Paul.

Aleppo has now turned into a commercial and industrial center, while retaining its medieval appearance. The citadel rises above the city - a wonderful example of Arab military architecture. The city is surrounded by a fortress wall. Houses face the streets with blank walls, but have patios. The minarets of city mosques (the most famous is the Zakharia Mosque) were built in different historical periods. The medieval covered markets, stretching for more than 12 km, are impressive with their stone vaults.

The history of Syrian Christianity is reflected in remarkable churches (especially in Aleppo) and tombs. To the north of Damascus, the Roman emperor Justinian built one of the Greek Orthodox churches, in which the image of the Mother of God and the Child attributed to St. Luke has been preserved. The ruins of the Romanesque castle of Crac de Chevalier (12th century), 65 km west of Homs, remain from the Crusader era.

Literature and folklore.

The traditions of oral creativity, widespread among nomads and peasants, are preserved in the country. In the villages, contests for the improvisation of versification are held, and itinerant storytellers are welcome guests in any home.

The revival of classical Arabic education began in the 19th century, when American and French missionaries began publishing classical and modern literature in Arabic. Syrians who studied in the West in missionary schools were the creators of the philosophy of Arab nationalism, and Syrian socialism was strongly influenced by such thinkers as Michel Aflak, Salah Bitar and Akram Hawrani.

In modern Syrian literature and journalism, works in the Kurdish and Armenian languages ​​are widely represented.

Theatre.

Theatrical art originated in Syria in the second half of the 19th century. The theatrical movement revived in the 1960s led to the creation of the National Theater, which staged classical and contemporary works by Arab and foreign authors (Moliere, Dürrenmat, Shaw). This theater gave a start in life to such playwrights as Mamduh Udwan, Saadellah Vannus and others, whose plays have been translated into European languages.

Mass media.

The government's General Directorate for Broadcasting and Television and the government's commercial service Syrian Television operate in the country. There is a government-owned Syrian news agency. Part of the population receives broadcasts from Voice of America, BBC, Lebanese and Egyptian radio. Radio broadcasting is conducted in almost a dozen languages.

More than a dozen Arabic-language newspapers are published in Damascus and Homs. The most widespread of them - "Al-Baath" ("Revival", 62 thousand copies) - the organ of Baath, "As-Saura" ("Revolution", 55 thousand copies), the government newspaper "Tishrin" ("October", 70 thousand copies). The Syria Times newspaper is published in English (12 thousand copies).

Cinema is popular among middle-class citizens. European and American films are widely screened in theaters, but most Syrians prefer Egyptian and Indian films.

Holidays and ceremonies.

Muslims perform Friday prayers and listen to sermons in large cathedral mosques. During religious services, shops are closed and government offices are closed. On Fridays, Syrians go to the market and hold social events. For Christians, Sunday remains the day off. Ramadan and Hajj are considered the most important Muslim rites. During Ramadan, which occurs in the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, you should refrain from eating during the daytime. At the end of the month, the holiday of breaking the fast is celebrated - eid al-fitr, during which it is customary to visit each other and exchange gifts. The Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), which Muslims are instructed to perform at least once in their lives, falls on the twelfth month of the lunar calendar. Upon their return, the pilgrims celebrate the holiday of sacrifice - eid al-adha (eid al-adha (eid al-adha), accompanied by a feast, fun and ritual slaughter of sheep. Maulid (the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad) and Mi "orazh (Ascension) are widely celebrated. Of the secular national holidays and memorable dates in Syria, the following are celebrated: Independence Day (March 8), the Day of the League of Arab States (March 22), Martyrs Day (April 6) ) - in memory of the 21 leaders of the Arab struggle for independence, who were hanged by the Ottoman governor Kamal Pasha, Evacuation Day (April 17) - to commemorate the final withdrawal of French troops, Day of Mourning (November 29) - in memory of France's transfer of the Hatay region to Turkey from center in the city of Alexandretta (modern Iskenderun).

STORY

The modern Syrian state emerged after the First World War, when France received a mandate from the League of Nations to govern Syria and Lebanon, and Great Britain - Palestine and Transjordan. Until that time, the term "Syria" included these four countries and small areas in the south of modern Turkey and in the northwest of Iraq. Thus, the history of Syria until the 1920s refers to a much wider territory (the so-called Greater Syria). The history of the modern state of Syria begins in 1919.

Early stages of history.

The first traces of human presence in Syria date back to the early Paleolithic era. In the Neolithic era and subsequent millennia, the country served as a kind of bridge between Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Arabia and Egypt; neighboring peoples and tribes have repeatedly moved there. Very little is known about the ancient, pre-Semitic population of Syria. The first migration of the Semitic tribes (Amorites) took place at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. During this period, the population was already engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, and political power was in the hands of the tribal leaders. Egyptian cultural influence penetrated Syria across the coast of modern Lebanon

On the basis of excavations in the Tell Mardih area, 40 km south of Aleppo, it has been established that approx. 2500 BC there was the capital of the rich and powerful state of Ebla. During the excavations, the palace library was discovered, consisting of 17 thousand clay tablets, among them - the earliest known bilingual dictionary in the world. Ebla's elected head and noble senate ruled northern Syria, Lebanon, and parts of northern Mesopotamia. His main opponent was the kingdom of Mari in the Euphrates valley. Ebla was active in the trade in wood, textiles and metal products with the small states-cities of the Euphrates Valley and northern Persia, as well as Cyprus and Egypt. Treaties of friendship were concluded between Ebla, on the one hand, and the Assyrian city of Ashur in northern Mesopotamia and the city of Hamazi in northern Persia, on the other. In the 23rd century. BC. Ebla was conquered by Akkad, its capital was wiped out.

After 2300 BC the Canaanite tribes invaded Syria in several waves. Numerous small states were formed in the country, and Phoenician cities (Ugarit and others) established themselves on the coast. In the following centuries, its territory became the object of conquest by neighboring states. Around 1760 BC Syria was conquered by the Babylonian king Hammurabi, who destroyed the state of Mari. In the 18th and 17th centuries. BC. the country was under the rule of the Hyksos, then the Hittites took possession of the northern regions, and in 1520 BC. the domination of the kingdom of Mitanni was established. From 1400 BC in the interior regions of Syria began to invade and resettle the Semitic tribes of the Arameans. In the south from the 16th century. BC. there was a city of Damascus, which became a major trade center. It was originally ruled by the Egyptian pharaohs.

A fierce struggle for Syria unfolded between the Egyptian New Kingdom and the Hittite state. After 1380 BC power over Syria belonged to the Hittites. Pharaoh Ramses II tried to recapture it, but failed to succeed in the decisive battle of Kadesh (in the vicinity of present-day Homs) in 1285 BC. But after the collapse of the Hittite state (about 1200 BC), Syria again disintegrated into a number of small states headed by local dynasties.

At the end of the 11th century. BC. Damascus and other areas of southern Syria were conquered by King David of the Israelite-Jewish state. However, already in the second half of the 10th century. BC. Damascus regained its independence and became an independent Aramaic kingdom. In the 9-8 centuries. BC. Syria was conquered by the Assyrians in 605 BC. - the Babylonians, in 539 BC - the Persians. In 333 BC. Syria came under the rule of Alexander the Great, and after the collapse of the empire he created in 301 BC. - the Seleucid dynasty. At this time, the country was experiencing the rise of Hellenistic culture; Syrian cities rivaled Alexandria and the cities of Asia Minor.

In the 2nd century. BC. the power of the Seleucids began to disintegrate, and small states arose on the territory of Syria (the Jewish state of the Maccabees, etc.). In the 1st century. BC. the country was attacked by the Parthians and Armenians, and in 64 BC. was conquered by Rome. During the Roman period, the Syrians were famous throughout the Mediterranean for their merchants, military leaders, scholars, jurists, priests and officials. In 193-235, the Roman Empire was ruled by a dynasty of the Severs - people from Syria. The country was one of the centers of the spread of Christianity: the city of Antioch became the seat of the Patriarch of the East.

In the 3rd century. AD, as political fragmentation intensified, various kingdoms and tribes fought for the possession of Syria. Some of these states, such as Palmyra, Edessa and Hatra, were Arab and had close political and economic ties with the Bedouins of North Arabia and Transjordan. First the Roman governors and then the kings of Sassanian Iran fought for the loyalty of the Arab leaders of southern Syria.

Invasion of the Seljuk Turks.

Revival of Syria in the 10th - early 11th centuries was slowed down by the conquest of its interior regions by the Seljuk Turks who came from Asia Minor and northern Mesopotamia. The tribes invading Syria were part of the huge Persian power of the Seljukids, but soon broke off their vassal relations with it and created two independent states with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. The Seljuks never penetrated into southern Syria, which remained under the rule of local rulers such as the Tanukids, or was in vassalage to the Egyptian Fatimids. At the end of the 11th century, due to the invasion of the crusaders from Western Europe, there was a further fragmentation and weakening of Syria.

Crusades.

The first European knights landed at Antioch, and then at other points on the Mediterranean coast at the end of the 11th century. By the beginning of the 12th century. on Syrian territory, four Crusader states were created: the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Edessa. Following the Christians, the Seljuks rushed to the region. The governor of Mosul, Emir Maudud, launched a campaign into northern Syria and in 1111 laid siege to Aleppo. Local Turkic and Arab leaders opposed the Seljuks, including the ruler of Damascus, who hired assassins to raid the Seljuks. However, after his death in 1128, cooperation between the city authorities and the assassins ceased, and the new Mosul emir Zengi immediately invaded the northern regions of Syria and occupied Aleppo. After that, the Zengyd dynasty, with the support of Kurdish horsemen hired as a striking force, under the pretext of an impending threat from the crusaders, established control over all of Syria.

One of the Kurdish commanders Salah ad-din (Saladin), who became famous for his military expeditions to Egypt in 1164, 1167 and 1168, after the death of Nur-ad-din ibn Zengi in 1174 became the head of the Zengid state and at the same time opposed the crusaders and the Abbasid caliphate in Iraq. In 1187, his troops defeated the army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but were exhausted by the subsequent 3rd Crusade, led by Richard I, Philip II Augustus and Frederick I Barbarossa. The successors of Salah ad-din Ayyubids retained control over the interior regions of Syria, but were forced to wage a stubborn struggle with the Seljuk Kony Sultanate in the north, the crusader states in the west and with various Turkic states that existed in the Mosul region and in western Persia in the east. In 1260, the decaying Ayyubid state was invaded by the Mongols under the leadership of Hulagu Khan, who took possession of Aleppo and Damascus, but was stopped by the Mamluk forces led by Sultan Qutuz in the battle of Ain Jalut in northern Palestine.

Rule of the Mamluks.

Soon Baybars killed Kutuz and assumed the title of Sultan. The Mamluk dynasty ruled Egypt and Syria in 1250. In the 1260s, Baybars occupied the strategically most important Ismaili strongholds in the mountains of Syria. In the early 1290s, Sultan al-Ashraf Salah ad-din Khalil captured the last Crusader fortresses on the Syrian Mediterranean coast. Already during the first century of Mamluk rule in Syria, an effective administrative system was created, trade with both the East and the West was restored. The rise of crafts and agriculture began. Syria reached its highest prosperity when it was ruled by Nasir Nasir-ad-din Muhammad (1310-1341). But already under his closest successors, due to the plague that swept across Syria and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and North Africa, the Mamluk state began to decline, which opened the way for the Turkic-Mongolian commander Timur (Tamerlane) to capture Aleppo and Damascus. Having occupied them in 1401, Timur began to relocate artisans from these cities to his capital Samarkand. At the same time, the Mamluk sultans in Cairo turned their eyes to Arabia and the lands on the shores of the Red Sea, and northern Syria became the object of the claims of the Timurids, Ottomans and other Turks. By the end of the 15th century. the rivalry between Mamluks, Ottomans and Iranian Safavids escalated into a real war. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who organized raids on the territory adjacent to the Red Sea, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabik in 1516 and easily conquered Syria.

Ottoman period.

For the next four centuries, Syria was part of the Ottoman Empire and was ruled from Istanbul. Soon after the Ottoman conquest, Syria (together with Lebanon and Palestine) was divided into 4 provinces (pashalyk) with centers in Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus (the latter included all the lands south of Damascus to the border with Egypt) and Saida. Several more provinces were later created, including Akka. At the head of each province was a Pasha, who was directly subordinate to the metropolitan administration. Each pasha ruled the territory under his jurisdiction with the help of local cavalry units and a cohort of civil and judicial officials who enjoyed considerable independence. The order that was established in the region contributed to the revival in the 16th century. trade and manufacturing, but after 1600, as a result of internecine struggles between peripheral authorities, the central treasury in Istanbul and large trading houses, the economy gradually fell into decay. The expansion of Dutch and English trade in the Mediterranean, South and Southeast Asia and in the Indian Ocean basin accelerated the decline in the economic activity of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 17th century.

In the 18th century. Aleppo and Beirut have become major trade centers in Syria; colonies of European merchants were established in several cities (most of the trade with Europe passed through their hands). Missionaries, especially Franciscans and Jesuits, began to arrive in large numbers to work among the local Christians. Contacts between missionaries and local authorities have further stratified Syrian society. Taking advantage of the situation, strong local clans tried to become independent from the central Ottoman government. Internecine strife intensified, and as a result of one of these conflicts, the defeated Druze sect moved to a mountainous region southeast of Damascus, called Mount Ed-Druz. At the end of the 18th century. most of southern Syria came under the rule of the Akk Pasha, Ahmad al-Jazzar, who tried to modernize the administrative system and contribute to the development of the economy.

By the end of the 18th century. European powers began to actively intervene in the internal affairs of Syria, establishing their spheres of influence. Thus, the French supported the Maronites and other Syrian Catholics, the Russians declared their right to defend the Orthodox, and the British offered their friendship to the Druze. In 1798-1799, the troops of Napoleonic France, having failed to capture Egypt, landed on the Syrian coast. Al-Jazzar, with the help of the British fleet, managed to stop the French at Akka and force Napoleon to return to France.

Syria's successes in the development of material production and trade attracted the attention of the powerful Egyptian Pasha, Muhammad Ali, whose army invaded the country in the fall of 1831. Centralized control of the country was established. Trade and agriculture continued to develop, but they were no longer controlled by the local nobility. Trade with Europe flourished especially. Many trade operations were conducted through the port of Beirut. Imports of cheap British fabrics have led to a decline in local textile handicrafts in Aleppo and Damascus, while increasing demand for olive oil, cotton and silk in European states and Egypt strengthened the position of the Syrian Christian traders.

Clashes between Egyptian troops stationed in Syria and Ottoman forces in Anatolia forced the European powers in 1839 to intervene and bolster the authority of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. British and Ottoman agents pushed the Druze into revolt against the Egyptian army. At the same time, the combined Anglo-Austrian fleet established a blockade of Beirut, which forced the commander Ibrahim Pasha to withdraw his troops from Syria in 1840. With the restoration of the Ottoman Sultan's power, Syria came under the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the market for European goods. Their influx destroyed the main branches of the handicraft industry and prompted urban traders and nobles of the country to actively buy up agricultural land. The trend towards their transfer to the ownership of townspeople who did not live on their estates intensified after 1858, when a new law was passed in the Ottoman Empire, allowing the transfer of communal lands in villages to private ownership, subject to the payment of higher taxes.

In the last quarter of the 19th century. In exchange for loans to the Ottoman Empire, French companies received numerous concessions in Syria. The French invested in the construction of Syrian ports, railways and highways. As material production declined, anti-Christian and anti-European sentiments grew. European interference in the political life of Syria intensified. This contributed to the growing dissatisfaction of the local Arab elite with Ottoman rule. In the 1890s, societies arose in Aleppo, Damascus and Beirut that advocated the independence of Syria from the Ottoman Empire. The number of these societies increased rapidly at the turn of the 20th century. The national consciousness of the Arabs became especially acute with the coming to power of the Young Turks after the July bourgeois revolution of 1908 in Turkey. When it became obvious that the Young Turks would primarily defend the interests of the Turkic-speaking population, the Syrians took the lead in several organizations that advocated the autonomy of the Arab provinces.

World War I.

With the outbreak of the First World War, the high command of the Ottoman troops transferred the Arab divisions of the 4th Ottoman army to Gelibolu (on the banks of the Dardanelles). The head of the civil and military administration of Syria, Jemal Pasha, ordered the arrest or deportation of many leaders of the national liberation movement. Nonetheless, local support for Arab nationalists continued to grow due to a severe crisis in all sectors of the economy, caused by higher military taxes and the British blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. The impetus for the further rise of the movement was the uprising that was raised in Arabia with the support of the British Sheriff of Mecca Hussein ibn Ali, who hoped in this way to create an independent Arab kingdom. When the Arab army, led by his son Faisal ibn Hussein, entered Damascus in October 1918, it was greeted as a liberator. The city was declared the seat of the independent government of all of Syria. At the same time, Beirut created its own Arab administration. Natives of Syria, who gained experience in administrative work in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt, were appointed to responsible posts in both cities. Both administrations sent their representatives to the General Syrian Congress in Damascus, convened in July 1919, where a resolution was passed calling for the proclamation of complete independence for Syria, the establishment of a constitutional monarchy led by Faisal, and the provision of legal protection to minorities.

While Syrian nationalists were in favor of autonomy, representatives of the UK and France began to discuss the question of the future state structure of Syria. The agreements between them were embodied in the decisions of the San Remo conference in April 1920, according to which the Faisal government in Damascus was dissolved, France received the League of Nations mandate to govern Syria and Lebanon, and Great Britain - to govern Palestine and Transjordan. The news of the decisions of the conference in San Remo caused a storm of indignation in the largest Syrian cities, and representatives of the national bourgeoisie invited the large landowner Hashim al-Atasi to head an openly anti-French government. Faisal attempted to mediate between the militant nationalists and the French by accepting the League of Nations mandate in July 1920 and using recruits to suppress urban protests. When French troops undertook a campaign against Damascus to seize power, a group of volunteers, trying to stop their advance on the capital, took up defenses in the area of ​​the Maisalun mountain pass. They were joined by a detachment of Minister of War Yusuf Azme, which, however, was defeated, and on July 25, French troops occupied Damascus and established control over all of Syria. Faisal was exiled from the country. In 1921, the British declared Faisal king of Iraq, for which they also received a mandate, and made his elder brother Abdallah ibn Hussein first emir and then king of the newly created emirate of Transjordan.

French Mandate.

The Christian Maronite region in Mount Lebanon was expanded to include the predominantly Muslim Bekaa Valley and the cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Sayda and Sur (Tire). The rest of Syria was divided into five semi-autonomous units: Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (the Alawite region), Jebel al-Druz (the Druze region with the center in Essaweid) and Alexandretta (modern Iskenderun, ceded to Turkey in 1939). In addition, in the extreme northeast of the country, in the vicinity of Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, a separate district was established, governed directly from the center. The political affairs of these territories were in charge of the High Commissioner in Damascus, who appointed all government and local officials and was responsible for the state of emergency imposed in 1920. The terms of the mandate opened the Syrian market to free access to all member states of the League of Nations. As a result, overseas goods flooded the country. Imports played a particularly disastrous role for the Syrian textile industry: between 1913 and 1926, the number of weavers in Aleppo fell by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3. Due to unemployment, which reached almost 25% in cities, and the influx of a large number of Armenian refugees from Turkey, who were looking for even low-paid jobs, there was a drop in the level of wages.

In 1925, the Druze from Jebel ed Druz revolted against the French. In October, leaders of the national movement organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, which was suppressed after two days of artillery attacks on Damascus, as a result of which approx. 5 thousand Syrians.

In 1926-1927, spontaneous strikes began in Aleppo and Homs, which soon spread to Damascus. The Syrian nationalist party, Al-Shabad (The People), became popular and soon took control of a Constituent Assembly convened by the administration in 1925 to stem the tide of discontent. The successor to the Al-Shabad party, the National Bloc (Kutla Watania organization), which won the elections to the Constituent Assembly in April 1928, put forward a draft constitution for the country, which provided for the reintegration of Syria and left no room for the colonial authorities in it. Soon, the French High Commissioner dissolved the Constituent Assembly, and in 1930 a new constitution was enacted, which affirmed French control over the country, but provided for an elected president and a unicameral parliament.

In 1935, the authorities approved a new labor law, which limited the list of professions whose representatives were allowed to join trade unions, and placed workers' syndicates under strict state control. In 1936, the trade unions of Damascus united into a single trade union, and two years later in Damascus, Aleppo and Homs they formed the General Federation of Workers' Trade Unions. The speeches of the workers' organizations created the conditions for the adoption by the National Bloc in January 1936 of the "National Pact", which again raised the issue of proclaiming the independence of Syria and the preparation of a draft of a new constitution. The publication of this pact coincided with a 50-day general strike that paralyzed markets, schools, utilities and factories across the country. The French authorities tried in vain to suppress the strike. As a result, the High Commissioner was left with no choice and began negotiations with the National Bloc. As a result of the negotiations, an agreement was prepared, in accordance with which the independence of Syria was de jure recognized and a new parliament was convened, but at the same time the broad rights of the French in the military and economic fields were confirmed. The National Bloc won the parliamentary elections in November 1936. In December 1936, the new parliament elected Hashim al-Atasi as the country's president.

The suppression of the Arab uprising in Palestine in April 1936 split the nationalists and the ruling coalition. Dissatisfaction with the moderate position of the National Bloc on the Palestinian issue ultimately led to the alienation of the Pan-Arab wing, whose center of activity was Aleppo. Taking advantage of this circumstance, the French again declared a state of emergency in Damascus, and in 1939 the High Commissioner suspended the constitution, dissolved parliament and arrested the most active leaders of the national and labor movement. In protest, the president of the country resigned on July 7, 1939, parliament was dissolved, the constitution was abolished, and the so-called. Board of Directors.

World War II and the declaration of independence.

After the surrender of France in 1940, there was a shortage of bread, sugar and gasoline in Syria. In February 1941, the National Bloc, led by Shukri Quatli, organized a strike in Damascus, which soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike lasted for two months, forcing the High Commissioner of the Vichy government in France to dissolve the previously appointed Board of Directors. Instead, a Committee was formed, led by the moderate nationalist Khaled al-Azem, who ruled Syria until the fall of 1941, when British and Free French troops occupied the country and restored the constitution. An agreement was reached between Shukri Quatli, the Free French administration and British representatives, according to which new parliamentary elections were held in the country in July 1943. They were again won by the National Bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union), which won the overwhelming majority of seats in parliament. The new government included prominent figures of the national liberation movement from Damascus, Aleppo and Homs, but at the same time representatives of the Hama, Alawites and Druze were left behind.

As a result, there was a consolidation of opposition to the government forces around the leaders of Hama and mountainous areas in the west and south of the country. Akram Haurani, a consistent opponent of the landlord elite, who dominated the leadership of the National Patriotic Union, was elected to parliament. Meanwhile, separatists from the Alawite and Druze regions have argued for autonomy. Various Islamist organizations began campaigning among poor artisans and small traders in the cities of the north and among the inhabitants of the poorest Damascus quarters, where migrant peasants from the villages settled. The socialists, led by Michel Aflak, demanded that the economic security of the workers of Damascus and the impoverished small owners of the western and southern regions of the country be ensured. There was also a weakening of the positions of the former Syrian leaders as a result of the tightening of the French policy towards their political opponents and the rupture after 1944 of Damascus's trade and financial ties with Beirut and Haifa due to the creation of autonomous states in Lebanon and Palestine.

Syria became nominally an independent state in 1945 when the creation of a national army was announced. The country joined the UN, and also took part in the creation of the League of Arab States (the first regional organization of Arab countries). However, full independence was gained only after the final withdrawal of French and British troops, which ended on April 17, 1946. This date became the national holiday of Syria - the Day of Evacuation.

The collapse of the parliamentary form of government.

With the withdrawal of the last units of French troops from Syria, the unity that existed among the leaders of the national movement was disrupted, and four forces appeared, which began a struggle for power in the country. Large landowners and wealthy merchants, who profited from the lack of grain and manufactured goods during wartime, controlled the National Party and Parliament. Independent small-scale producers concentrated in Alawite and Druze regions, as well as poor and landless peasants in the central plains, criticized the corruption and nepotism that reigned among the former leaders and advocated the implementation of political and economic reforms. In early 1947, a peasant movement led by Akram Hawrani launched a campaign to change the parliamentary election law. In response, Kuatli (the country's president since August 1943) declared a state of emergency and limited the activities of the Hawrani Arab Socialist Party and the Pan-Arab Arab Renaissance Party, led by Michel Aflak and Salah Bitar. This ensured the victory of the National Party candidates in the parliamentary elections in July 1947 and the re-election of Kuatli as president.

Since 1948, the National Party began to split according to the regional principle (Damascus and Aleppo). Both factions began to seek the favor of large landowners who could attract the votes of the rural electorate. The political rivalry over the government’s efforts to amend the constitution so that President Quatli would remain in office for a second term has prevented Syria from resisting the escalation of the Palestinian civil war. Following the proclamation of the State of Israel in May 1948, a Syrian brigade invaded Northern Galilee, becoming the only Arab military unit to advance in the first Arab-Israeli war. However, immediately after the ceasefire in parliament, the executive branch was accused of incompetence and misappropriation of funds. In late November, a strike by schoolchildren and university students escalated into riots. The government was forced to resign, and the chief of the general staff, Colonel Husni al-Zaim, ordered the troops to restore order. A state of emergency was declared in the country.

After Syria gained independence, the creation of its own armed detachments became a means of improving the economic and social situation of representatives of various minorities, especially the Alawites and Druze, who, beginning in 1946, actively entered the military academy in Homs. Young graduates of the academy gradually became more intolerant of the old elite, from which they were separated by class origin and regional affiliation. Growing discontent within the army prompted high commanders, many of whom were Sunni townspeople, to support social change and solidarity with national movement leaders in neighboring Arab states. In the winter of 1948-1949, in the wake of the discontent of the population and parliament members with the military defeat in Palestine, a group of senior officers led by al-Zaima overthrew the legally elected government.

Coming to power in March 1949, al-Zaim abolished the constitution of 1930, prohibited activities political parties and began to rule with the help of decrees. In June, he proclaimed himself president, but in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in the armed forces during a repeated military coup. The coup leader, Colonel Sami Hinawi, announced the restoration of the civil regime and the holding of elections to the People's Council, which was to create a new constitution. In this election, which was the first time women were allowed, a parliamentary majority was won by the Aleppo branch of the National Party, which called itself the People's Party after an organization that operated in northern Syria in the 1920s. Its deputies, many of whom had close trade and financial ties with the northern regions of Iraq, advocated a political alliance with that country. However, opponents of the union, in particular Hawrani and senior army officials, blocked the normal work of the newly elected parliament during the last two months of 1949. As a result, on December 19, young officers led by Colonel Adeeb Shishekli, in an attempt to find a way out of the situation, removed Hinaoui.

Shishekli resumed the activities of the parliament and asked him to continue working on the draft constitution. The new constitution, promulgated on September 5, 1950, proclaimed a parliamentary form of government, declared broad civil rights and the implementation of socio-economic reforms. However, Shishekli and his associates behind the armchair leapfrog 1950-1951 turned to tough measures in an attempt to bring the resurgent trade unions and peasant movement under their control. In November 1951, they dissolved parliament and suspended the constitution. For six months, the leadership of the country was carried out by the military in the absence of a government. Political parties were banned in April 1952. In 1953, Sishekli promulgated a new constitution and became president after a referendum.

The civil-military coalition, which came to power in February 1954, nominated Sabri al-Asali for the post of prime minister, whose government restored the force of the 1950 constitution and allowed the activities of political parties. In September 1954, parliamentary elections were held, in which a significant part of the mandates were won by the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party, formed as a result of the unification of the Arab Socialist Party of Hawrani and the Arab Renaissance Party of Aflak and Bitar. However, the "left" forces were unable to agree on the creation of a coalition-based government, which was eventually formed by Faris al-Khouri. In February 1955, the leader of the National Party, Sabri al-Asali, replaced Faris al-Khouri as prime minister. The government immediately announced extensive reforms in industry and the agricultural sector. Frightened by the prospect, as well as by the Baath and Communist demands for further radical change, conservatives in parliament blocked the proposed farm workers' rights bill and campaigned in favor of former President Quatli, who soon returned from exile in Egypt. In the elections in August 1955, Kuatli was elected president of the country with the support of Saudi Arabia.

In the early 1950s, as a result of the US Middle East policy, Syria was drawn into the Cold War. In 1955, the country joined Egypt in its struggle against the Baghdad Pact (later the Central Treaty Organization, CENTO), created by Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the United States and Great Britain. In December, Syria became the second (after Egypt) state in the Arab world to sign an agreement with the USSR on the supply of military equipment. In 1955-1956, Syria reached an agreement with Egypt on the unification of the military command and the creation of a common Military Council. The 1956 Suez Crisis, which led to the joint British-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt, further strengthened bilateral ties.

The country's close ties with Egypt, along with attempts by the United States and Iraq to undermine its leadership, have strengthened the influence of the head of the Syrian military intelligence, Colonel Abd al-Hamid Saraj. His agents in 1956 uncovered a carefully prepared conspiracy, which was behind the secret services of Baghdad. The perilous situation became apparent in August 1956, when Iraqi weapons were secretly transferred to the Ed Druz Mountains. In December, 47 prominent People's Party members with close ties to Iraqi traders were brought before a military tribunal on charges of treason. Prime Minister al-Asali removed the People's Party representatives from the cabinet, replacing them with anti-American independent politicians. The US tried to destabilize the new government by offering American wheat in traditional Syrian markets in Greece and Italy. This led to increased popular support for the Baath Party, which accused the United States of interfering in the internal affairs of Syria. Meanwhile, the disclosure of American plans to overthrow Kuatli and seize power by a pro-Western military junta prompted Saraj and the chief of general staff to visit Cairo to discuss possible aid from Egypt. In late 1957, the political games of pro-American, pro-Egyptian and pro-Syrian leaders led to the postponement of municipal elections. In January 1958, Chief of the General Staff Afif al-Bizri undertook a secret trip to Egypt, asking Abdel Nasser to immediately unite Syria and Egypt into a single state. In February, Kuatli flew to Cairo, where the creation of the United Arab Republic (UAR) was announced.

Union with Egypt.

The Syrians enthusiastically approved the creation of the UAR in a referendum on February 21, 1958. The Interim Constitution of the union state was adopted, providing for a single president and government, as well as the existence of separate Executive Councils for the two regions of the UAR: Northern (Syrian) and Southern (Egyptian). In 1959, the Egyptian National Union Party was declared the only legal political party in the UAR. Saraj became the Minister of the Interior and the head of all the Syrian special services.

The desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries has provoked a widespread increase in discontent in Syria. In Cairo, it was considered possible to mechanically extend to Syria the development programs developed for the Nile Valley. When the nationalization and redistribution of property began in Syria in the summer of 1961, the Syrian small and medium-sized urban traders advocated secession from the UAR. Even the "left" Baath, arguing against the "socialist" innovations, motivated its position by the desire to soften criticism of the process of unification of the two states and referring to the fact that these measures would rather lead to increased centralized control over the economy than to achieve social justice. Widespread opposition to unification and the weakening of pro-Egyptian forces in Syria after Saraj's transfer to work in Cairo helped a coalition of civilian politicians and the military to bring the country out of the UAR in September 1961.

On September 28, 1961, the Syrian military command staged a coup and announced the withdrawal of Syria from the United Arab Republic.

Parliamentary interregnum.

From late 1961 to early 1963, three party coalitions operated on the Syrian political scene. Socialists led by Hawrani and Khaled al-Azem advocated retaining state control over heavy industry and greater citizen participation in political life... Large landowners, wealthy traders and financiers called for the restoration of private enterprises and the political order that existed in the 1950s. The moderates, including Aflak's Baath wing, advocated the preservation of the political and economic system of the UAR period. The Syrian political parties that functioned before 1958 were destroyed by the Egyptian secret services, and the old National and People's Parties no longer enjoyed the support of the population. At the same time, the nasserists continued to occupy top positions in the trade unions and the central state apparatus. In such circumstances, the leaders of the supporters of disengagement at first were unable to nominate a candidate for the post of head of the new Syrian cabinet of ministers. In the end, the formation of the government, which included former members of the National and People's parties, was entrusted to Maamun Kuzbari, who previously served as the secretary general of the National Union of Damascus. This coalition did not receive the support of the main political forces of the country, but due to a split in the camp of the left, the National and People's Parties managed to win a majority in parliament in the elections in December 1961.

The new government of Maaruf al-Dawalibi, with the support of the top of the army, began a process of denationalization and encouraged the creation of private enterprises. The decisions made in the UAR were canceled, according to which the expropriation of British, French and Belgian property was carried out, the UAR law on land reform was revised. These changes were opposed by peasants and small village commodity producers from the outlying governorates. They were supported by young officers who shared Baathist principles, whose group, led by recent supporters of the disengagement of Syria and Egypt, in March 1962 arrested the bulk of the members of parliament and tried to force them to continue reforms. Naser officers from the Homs garrisons attempted a counter-coup, but failed. In April, the commander of the Syrian army, Major General Abdel Kerim al-Din, convened a senior command meeting in Homs, at which it was decided to remove the left-wing socialists from the armed forces and restore civil rule. At the same time, parliament was dissolved, Abdel Kerim ad-Din was appointed minister of defense. In September, the Supreme Military Command reinstated parliament and appointed Khaled al-Azem as prime minister. He formed a government consisting of representatives of all parties and groups, with the exception of those that advocated reunification with Egypt. At the same time, Khaled al-Azem spoke out firmly against the further participation of the military in the political life of the country. The current situation, which was aggravated by the protests of the population, initiated by the Nasserists and gaining strength Islamists in January 1963 in Damascus and the geographical region of Hauran (south-west of the capital), provoked a new military coup in March 1963, the so-called. "Revolution on March 8".

Baathist regime.

The coup in Syria was organized by the Military Committee of the Baath Party, which was not officially considered part of the party organization, but shared the goals of its leadership.

In the first months after coming to power, the leaders of the March coup nationalized banks and insurance companies and began a new agrarian reform, limiting the size of private land holdings. Prime Minister Salakh Bitar said that private property will remain "in an efficient industrial sector."

However, in May 1964, radicals from provincial party organizations nationalized a number of large industrial firms in Aleppo and Homs and introduced a system of self-government there. By the summer, they had convinced the government to authorize the creation of nationwide trade union associations and to enact a new labor law that would increase the role of the state in protecting workers' rights. In the fall, the General Federation of Peasants was founded, and in mid-December, the government decided that all future oil revenues in Syria should remain in the hands of the state.

These measures laid the foundation for a radical transformation of the economy in 1965. In January, the "Ramadan Socialist Decree" was adopted, placing all of the most significant Syrian enterprises under state control. Over the next six months, a further nationalization program was implemented. In the course of it, the ties between the trade unions and the peasants, who were the mainstay of the Baath Party, and artisans and traders in large and small cities, who began to deviate from the nationalist principles proclaimed by the party, were finally severed. Tensions between these two categories of the population resulted in riots and demonstrations that engulfed the cities in the spring and summer of 1965. This marked the beginning of a struggle between moderate Baathist leaders associated with the Minister of the Interior Amin Hafez, and the leaders of the left Baathists led by General Salah Jadid for defining the future course of the Baathist revolution. Amin Hafez, who headed the government in mid-1964, appealed for support to the all-Arab leadership of the party. In turn, Salah Jadid strengthened his position in the regional (Syrian) leadership by appointing associates at strategically important posts in the Syrian army. At the end of February 1966, Jadid's supporters, including the commander of the air force, General Hafez Assad, managed to finally remove Amin Hafez and his supporters from the power structures.

The new government set about creating state cooperatives, approved measures to concentrate wholesale trade in the public sector, and in 1968 introduced a central planning system. The new regime entered into an alliance with the Syrian Communist Party, and prominent communists were included in the government. This course was opposed by representatives of the middle strata in provincial cities, who were forced to obey party directives under the supervision of a growing popular militia. In the spring of 1967, anti-Baathist protests began, provoked by an editorial in an army weekly, which was perceived by the general public as atheistic. In response, the ruling regime mobilized its armed supporters in the ranks of the workers' militia, as well as units of Palestinian guerrillas based in Syria since 1964, who sought to re-engage the Arab world in the liberation struggle. The unwinding spiral of militarization helped drag Syria into the Six Day War with Israel in June 1967.

Israeli air strikes on major Syrian enterprises and the oil refinery complex in Homs have caused enormous damage to the country's economy, and the Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights in southern Syria has seriously undermined the reputation of Jadid's cabinet. The government's failure to ensure economic recovery in the post-war period provoked a new wave of anti-government actions that swept through the country's cities in 1968 and 1969. These actions were led by a militant Islamist organization led by Marwan Hadid of Hama. At the same time, a split within the ruling elite was growing. The radicals who grouped around Jadid set the task of increasing state influence on the economy and proposed subordinating the military to the civilian wing of the Baath. The pragmatists rallied around the Minister of Defense, General Hafez Assad, sought to create conditions for the development of private entrepreneurship and preserve the autonomy of the army; by the beginning of 1970 they had succeeded in obtaining the adoption of decrees on subsidizing private enterprises and easing restrictions on the import of a number of goods. These measures contributed to the country's economic recovery and created the preconditions for a coup d'etat in November 1970, as a result of which the Baath military wing, led by Hafez Assad, came to power.

Assad's rule.

The new leadership opted for a development strategy that provided government funding and control over the activities of large capital-intensive enterprises, while at the same time supporting trade and investment in the private sector, especially in construction and agriculture.

The Assad government has developed a five-year plan for economic recovery. The October War with Israel in 1973, during which Egypt and Syria launched a coordinated offensive against the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights, albeit a costly action, demonstrated that the Syrian military had grown significantly stronger than in 1967. In 1974 Israel withdrew its troops from several areas of the Golan Heights, including the city of El Quneitra. Private firms that emerged in Syria in the early 1970s benefited from the rise in oil prices that brought prosperity to Arab oil-producing states after 1973, as well as from increased ties with Lebanese banks and light industries. Syrian entrepreneurs, closely linked to Lebanon and the Gulf oil-producing countries, benefited from Assad's intervention in the Lebanese civil war after 1976 and from strengthening diplomatic contacts with wealthy Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, which provided generous economic aid to Syria in the late 1970s.

However, the use of government funds by top Syrian officials to support supporters of the regime, as well as the amount of profit that entrepreneurs received from ties with state-owned companies, provoked accusations of corruption by the ruling elite. These accusations, together with the growing competition between state enterprises and private firms, gave impetus to the revitalization of the Islamist movement in the late 1970s. In early 1976, members of several independent Islamist movements launched a campaign against the ruling regime. In 1977-1978, they organized a series of attacks on government facilities and the assassinations of prominent government and party leaders.

In the spring of 1980 in Aleppo, Hama and Homs, there were serious clashes between government forces and the rebels. After that, the central authorities made a number of conciliatory gestures, but already in July declared membership in the Muslim Brotherhood a criminal offense. A group of powerful religious leaders gathered in November the leaders of militant Islamist organizations to form the Islamic Front to coordinate opposition to the Baathist leaders. In response to the challenge, the regime began to strengthen its position, strengthening the public sector of the economy. The government raised wages at state-owned enterprises, which, according to the adopted official decrees, decreased their dependence on Damascus, and increased their responsibility to the local administration. Private companies in the manufacturing industry were taxed higher. A package of measures has been implemented, especially in the northern and central governorates, to reverse the flow of raw materials from small private firms to state-owned enterprises. In 1981, the government obliged importing merchants to obtain licenses for the right to import goods from abroad from the Ministry of Commerce and to apply for the necessary loans exclusively from state banks. Traders who tried to circumvent these rules were arrested on charges of smuggling and tax evasion.

Faced with an assault on their rights, small traders from Hama, led by members of the Muslim Brotherhood, launched an open rebellion against the authorities in February 1982 with slogans aimed at establishing Islamic order in Syria. The revolt was brutally suppressed by an army led by the president's brother, Rifat Assad. The result of the speech in Hama was the creation of the National Union for the Liberation of Syria, which included the groups united in the Islamic Front and other underground organizations opposing the regime. The charter they adopted called for an end to corruption, free elections to the Constituent Assembly and the liberalization of the constitution. However, the opposition failed to build on the success. The government put the country's economy under even stricter control, intending to cope with the growing shortage of investment in production and foreign exchange, and opponents of Assad turned their attention to international affairs, in particular to the question of Syria's support for Islamist Iran during its war with Iraq (1980- 1988).

In the early 1980s, the economic boom of the previous decade ended. While Syria's military spending rose sharply, especially after the start of a massive Israeli offensive in Lebanon in June 1982, world oil prices began to fall, which significantly reduced foreign exchange earnings. As a result, revenues from the export of liquid fuels have decreased and the inflow of money from Syrians working in the wealthy Arab oil-producing states has decreased.

As control over the country tightened, the Assad government embarked on a second phase of economic liberalization in the late 1980s. The final Statement of the Baath Congress held in January 1985 criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the public sector of the economy and advanced a proposal to reorganize the complex exchange rate system in order to reduce illegal currency circulation and losses from illegal black market transactions. In the spring of 1985, the country's new prime minister, Abdel Rauf Qassem, began negotiations with Western states and foreign financial institutions to attract foreign investment in agriculture and the service sector. At the same time, the government continued to argue that such a policy is quite consistent with the official plan for the economic development of Syria.

In 1986, the European Community promised Syria 146 million ECU financial assistance, but later froze it. After in 1990-1991 the Syrian leadership supported the actions of the international coalition against Iraq, this aid was unfrozen. The Emirates of the Persian Gulf and Saudi Arabia provided the country with funds in the amount of $ 1.25 billion and loans in the amount of $ 3-4 billion. These injections allowed the Syrian economy to achieve record growth (6% in 1990 and 8% in 1991) ...

In the 1990s, the Syrian government continued to pursue a tough domestic policy. In December 1991 and March 1992, it released more than 3 thousand political prisoners, but at the same time, new arrests were made, and the number of people imprisoned for political reasons was, according to international human rights organizations, several thousand people.

The country experienced difficulties related to the balance of payments and budget deficits. The government decided to further stimulate the development of private entrepreneurship.

The authorities tried to improve relations with the West. In 1994, US President Clinton visited the country (the first visit of a US President to Syria since 1974). Attempts by American and other diplomats to get the start of a settlement to Syrian-Israeli relations were unsuccessful. Syria has declared its readiness for formal negotiations, subject to the withdrawal of Israeli troops from the Golan Heights and from southern Lebanon. Since 1991, there have been irregular meetings between the two countries, mediated by the United States, but in 1994 they were discontinued. After the military experts of Israel and Syria agreed in 1995 on a framework for agreeing on security aspects related to the withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Golan Heights, where the Israelis had built 31 settlements, the negotiation process resumed. But already in 1996 it was interrupted again due to the Arab-Israeli confrontation in Palestine. In December 1999, negotiations resumed again. Relations with Jordan have improved. A free trade zone was established on the Syrian-Jordanian border in 2000.

In 1998, the ruling PNF once again won the elections to the People's Council, and in February 1999, H. Assad was re-elected as president, receiving 99.9% of the votes in a referendum. However, the struggle for his inheritance has already intensified in the leadership of the Baath Party. Former vice-president Rifaat al-Assad (brother of H. Assad) fell out of favor; his private port in Latakia was stormed by troops in October 1999. The president himself now considered his son Bashir al-Assad as his successor. In March 2000, Prime Minister Mahmoud al-Zuabi, who had held this post since 1987, was removed from his post (after 2 months he committed suicide, accused of corruption). In the new government of Muhammad Mustafa Miro, the positions of Bashir's supporters have significantly strengthened.

Syria at the beginning of the 21st century

June 10, 2000 H. Asad died. After the People's Council lowered the age for presidential candidates to 34, Bashir al-Assad was formally nominated by the Baath Party for the presidency. In a referendum on July 10, 2000, he received the support of 97.3% of the voters.

B. al-Assad announced his intention to continue attempts to reach a settlement of the conflict with Israel, but reiterated the demand for the Israelis to withdraw to the border that existed before the 1967 war. In 2002, Syria announced its readiness to resume peace negotiations with Israel from the point at which they were interrupted H. Asad, and without any preconditions. The new president also took steps to improve relations with Iraq. In an effort to expand the base for his influence in Lebanon, B. al-Assad entered into a strategic partnership with the radical Shiite organization Hezbollah.

In 2002, B. al-Assad twice announced an amnesty: the sentences for children aged 7-18 years charged with criminal offenses were reduced by a third, and in October those who evaded conscription or deserted from the Syrian army were pardoned. In 2002, 12 prominent political prisoners were released, including communists and several Jordanian citizens.

Some opposition activists returned to the country. In April 2002, one hundred and thirty-seven former political prisoners sent a memorandum to the President calling for the lifting of all restrictions and repressive measures imposed on those who were previously arrested for political reasons.

The activities of human rights groups and opposition organizations have intensified. In August 2002, on the initiative of the Muslim Brotherhood, a conference of opposition representatives was held in London, at which the National Charter for Syria was adopted. The principles enunciated in it contained a commitment to human rights and a non-violence.

However, the new leadership of Syria was not going to follow these principles and continued to harass critics of the regime. Arrests of members of human rights organizations continued; many of them were prohibited by the authorities from practicing law. Others arrested included some of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders who returned from abroad, members of Kurdish political organizations, and dozens of Islamists accused of links to the international terrorist network Al-Qaeda. In June - July 2002, ten oppositionists, accused of attempting to forcibly change the constitutional order, were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment (up to 10 years), but the most prominent of them, the leader of the UPC-Politburo, Riad el-Turk, was pardoned in November 2002 the president.

In total, according to Amnesty International, hundreds of political opponents remained in prison - first of all, the Muslim Brotherhood, members of the pro-Iraqi wing of the Baath Party, the Islamic Liberation Party, the Arab Communist Organization, Palestinian activists, etc.

In the March 2003 elections to the People's Council, the PNF candidates won 167 out of 250 seats; the rest went to independent candidates.

In 2003, Syrian President B. al-Assad strongly condemned the US-British military attack against Iraq. In response, the United States accused the country of supporting terrorism and harboring leaders of the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein. American sanctions have been imposed on Syria. A number of European states have expressed concern over American pressure on Syria.

In October 2003, Israel Defense Forces planes launched an air strike on Syrian territory near Damascus, arguing that there are camps of activists of radical Palestinian organizations, including the Islamic Jihad.

The action was held in response to the terrorist attack in the Israeli city of Haifa, which killed 19 people.

The Syrians denied the existence of Palestinian training camps in their country and insisted that the attack had been carried out on the refugee camp. The issue of sanctions imposed on Syria escalated in February 2005 after the explosion of the car of the former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik al-Hariri in Beirut on February 14. Some politicians accused the Syrians of involvement in the assassination of a Lebanese politician and a desire to destabilize the situation and, ultimately, the civil war in Lebanon, ahead of the parliamentary elections. In September 2004, by its resolution, the UN called for the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon.

In March 2005, Assad complied with this resolution and withdrew the 16,000-strong military contingent from Lebanon.

In April 2007, general elections were held in Syria. Initially, the parliament of Syria was elected, elections to which are held every four years, then a referendum was held to re-elect the president for a new seven-year term. At the last stage of the elections, local authorities are formed.
On May 10, 2007, Assad's candidacy as the only contender for the presidency of Syria was approved by the country's parliament.
On May 27, 2007, 96.9 percent of nearly 12 million voters took part in a nationwide referendum. Of these, 97.62 percent supported Assad's candidacy, 19,653 people voted against. On July 17, 2007, Assad officially took office as head of state, whose powers are extended until the next elections in 2014.

In March 2011, anti-government actions began in the southern Syrian city of Deraa on the border with Jordan. Demonstrators initially demanded the release of schoolchildren arrested for the anti-government slogans they had written on the walls of their houses. Stop the rampant corruption - that was another slogan of the protesters.

Local security forces violently dispersed the demonstration, prompting new demonstrations and clashes with the police. New demands were added to the previous demands: trials over those responsible for the deaths of the demonstrators, the release of political prisoners and the resignation of the governor. The authorities used force again.
Riots and demonstrations began in the cities of Kharra, Dakhel, Jassem, Naui. Later, protests were held in a number of other regions of the country, in particular in the cities of Latakia, Baniyas, Homs, Hama and some suburbs of Damascus. By the end of March 2011, mass demonstrations in southern Syria reached their maximum intensity.

Opposition and human rights groups say the authorities are brutally suppressing protests, with the death toll reaching several hundred. At the same time, state television claims that the riots are organized by extremists, instigated from the outside, and that most of the dead are soldiers and intelligence officers.

President Bashar al-Assad has repeatedly spoken about the existence of an external conspiracy. However, he nevertheless announced the upcoming political reforms in the country. In particular, the state of emergency that had been in effect since 1963 was lifted in the country, a commission was created to investigate the events in Deraa, and the provincial governor was dismissed. The authorities released 260 political prisoners, including Islamists and Kurdish nationalists, from prison, and pardoned 70 people arrested during the unrest. They promised to reduce taxation on some food products, create a social assistance fund for the poor, reduce military service by three months, reduce the cost of parking by 30%, increase salaries by 17%.

However, opposition protests in Syria continue, which often result in armed conflicts.

In February 2012, a referendum was held in which a new draft constitution was presented. In the new edition, the Party of Arab Socialist Revival (or "Baath" for short) lost its state-forming status, which meant that from now on, Baath would take part in the elections on an equal basis with other parties.

On May 7, 2012, for the first time, multi-party elections to the People's Council (or Mejlis, i.e. parliament) took place. The majority of the seats were won by the National Unity bloc (183 out of 250), which included the ruling Baath Party of Hafez Assad and the Progressive National Front Party. Independent candidates won 49 seats. The opposition Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Change won 5 seats, while regional associations won 13 seats.

On the night of May 26, 2012, a massacre of civilians took place in the town of Al-Hula, Homs province. 108 people were killed. According to the UN, 20 people were killed by shelling, the rest were shot at close range. All the circumstances of the massacre remain unclear.

The Syrian authorities said the events in Hula provoked opposition forces to disrupt the peace process.

The current situation in the country can be described as a civil war.

On June 3, 2014, the next presidential elections were held in the country. According to official data, 88.7 percent of voters (more than 10.3 million people) voted for Bashar al-Assad. The West and, in particular, the United States, however, refused to recognize the results of the vote.

Literature:

Syria: A Handbook. M., 1992



In the III millennium BC. e. the Semitic city-state of Ebla was located on these lands; it was part of the circle of the Sumerian-Akkadian civilization. Subsequently, the Amorite state of Yamhad was formed here, but the invasion of the Hittites from the Balkans put an end to it. In the 17th century, the local Hurrian tribes formed the state of Mitanni. In the XV century. BC e. here came the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose I.
In the period from X to VIII century BC. e. Damascus became the center of the powerful Aramaic kingdom. At the beginning of the IX century. BC e. the Syrians conquered part of northern Galilee from the Israelites. At this time, the Assyrians were gaining strength. They began to collect tribute from the rulers of Syria. The rulers formed a powerful anti-Assyrian alliance. A fierce battle took place in 854 BC. e., under the walls of the city of Karkara, but it did not bring results.
However, the coalition of Syrian and Palestinian rulers, dangerous for the Assyrians, did not last long. A war broke out between them. The Assyrians managed to defeat the Syrian army, but were never able to take the city.
The Syrian king Hazael managed to keep the throne, but started a war with the Israelites. The Syrians practically made the king of Israel, Jehoahaz, a vassal. But in 802 BC. e. the Assyrians attacked Syria again. This time they captured and plundered Damascus. Hazael became a vassal of Assyria. But again he remained on the throne. Under his children, the Israelites continued to press against Damascus.
The next Assyrian king, Tiglathpalasar III, decided to expand the borders at the expense of Syria. In 738 BC. e. his troops captured 19 Syrian cities. In these conditions, the rulers of Syria rallied around the new Damascus king Rizon II. The king of Israel, Pekah, became his ally.
In 734 BC. e. Tiglatpalasar III conquered Israel, and in 733 BC. e. the Assyrians took Damascus. The city was badly damaged. Then the Chaldeans came to replace the Assyrians, and then the Persians.
Alexander the Great conquered Syria and made it part of the Macedonian kingdom. Later, Syria passed to Seleucus Nicator, under which it reached its highest development.
But after his death, Syria was captured in 83 by Tigranes, the king of Armenia. In 64, Pompey defeated Tigranes and made Syria a Roman province, annexing Judea to it. But gradually the power of the Roman emperors weakened, and Syria became the prey of the Saracens.
In 635, Syria was devastated and then conquered by the Arabs, who converted most of the Aramaic population to Islam. In 660-750 Damascus served as the residence of the caliphs. The Crusades for 2 centuries led to constant military clashes in Syria. The principality of Antioch was formed here, which in 1187 was conquered by the Egyptian sultan Saladin.
In 1260, the weakened Ayyubid state was captured by the Mongols, who were stopped by the Mamluk forces led by Sultan Kutuz.
In 1517, Syria was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. Its territory was divided into 4 provinces, headed by governors.
In the 18th century, French influence increased here. In the late 1850s and early 1860s. bloody feuds broke out between the Druze and the Maronites.
Ideas of nationalism penetrated from Europe through the Young Turks movement into Syria. During World War I, Damascus was declared the seat of the independent government of all of Syria, which was perceived as the revival of the Damascus Caliphate.
Faisal I declared himself king of Syria. But behind his back, Britain agreed to give Syria to France in exchange for giving up the oil-rich Mosul region.
In 1920, France received a mandate to govern Syria. Faisal was driven out by her troops. After the 1925-27 Uprising, France had to make concessions in matters of local government. In 1932, Syria was declared a republic (with the preservation of the French mandate). In 1939, France granted the Syrian province of Alexandretta to Turkey.
Syria received complete independence from France on April 17, 1946. The first president was the head of the colonial administration, Kuatli. The emergence of the state of Israel in 1948 and the subsequent Arab-Israeli war led to an acute political crisis. In 1949, there were three military coups in Syria.
In 1958, Syria tried to unite with Egypt and the United Arab Republic was formed.
But in 1963, Syria came under the rule of the leaders of the Baath Party (Party of Arab Socialist Renaissance) with an orientation towards total socialism.
During the reign of Hafez al-Assad, Syria sought to limit Israel's influence in the region. The Syrian Golan Heights came under Israeli control, but Syria gained almost complete political control over Lebanon, established during the civil war in that country. An end to this was put in 2005, the Syrian troops were withdrawn from Lebanon.
After the death of Hafez al-Assad, his son, Bashar al-Assad, became president of Syria, whose policy was more lenient.
In 2011, an uprising broke out in Syria.

Syria or Syrian Arab Republic- a state in the Middle East, in the eastern Mediterranean, bordered by Lebanon and Israel in the southwest, Jordan in the south, Iraq in the east and Turkey in the north. It is washed by the Mediterranean Sea in the west. The area is 185.2 thousand km².

The Ansaria mountain range divides the country into the wet western part and the arid eastern part.

The fertile coastal plain is located in northwestern Syria and stretches 130 km from north to south, along the Mediterranean coast from the Turkish border to the Lebanese border. Almost all agriculture in the country is concentrated here.

Most of the Syrian territory is located on an arid plateau dotted with mountain ranges Dajabl-ar-Ruwak, Jabal-Abu-Rudjmain and Jabal-Bishri. The average height of the plateau above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 meters. To the north of the mountains is the Hamad Desert, to the south - Homs.

In the east, Syria is crossed by the Euphrates River. In 1973, a dam was built in the upper reaches of the river, which led to the formation of a reservoir called Lake Assad.

Climate

Climate in Syria subtropical Mediterranean on the coast and dry continental in the hinterland. The average January temperature is from +4 .. + 6 ° C in the eastern regions to +12 ° C on the coast, in July - from +33 ° C to +26 ° C, respectively. At the end of summer, a hot east wind "khamsin" blows in Syria, sometimes turning into sandstorms.

Traveling around the country is best done in the spring, from March to May, or in the fall, from September to November, when the weather conditions are most favorable. The beach season lasts here from May to November.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

Population

The population of Syria is 22 198 110 people (2009). The majority of the population is concentrated along the banks of the Euphrates and along the Mediterranean coast. The average life expectancy is 70 years.

Arabs (including about 400 thousand Palestinian refugees) make up more than 80% of the population of Syria.

The largest national minority - Kurds, make up 10% of the population. Most of the Kurds live in the north of the country, many still use the Kurdish language. There are also Kurdish communities in all major cities.

3% of the population of Syria is Assyrians, mostly Christians, also live in the north and north-east of the country.

In addition, up to 400 thousand Circassians (Circassians) and about 200 thousand Armenians live in Syria, as well as about 900 thousand Turks live on the border with Turkey in the cities of Aleppo (Aleppo), Latakia and in the capital.

Religion

90% of the population of Syria is Muslim, 10% is Christian.

Of the Muslims, 75% are Sunnis, the remaining 25% are Alawites and Ismailis, as well as Shiites, whose number has been constantly increasing since 2003 due to the flow of refugees from Iraq.

Among Christians, half are Syrian Orthodox, 18% are Catholics (mainly members of the Syrian Catholic and Melkite Catholic Churches). There are significant communities of the Armenian Apostolic and Russian Orthodox Churches.

About 100-200 Syrian Jews also live in Damascus and Lattakia, the remnants of a 40,000-strong community that almost completely fled to Israel, the United States and the countries of South America as a result of the pogroms of 1947, which began after the announcement of the UN plan to partition Palestine.

Language

The state and most widespread language is Arabic. In the northern regions of the country, the Kurdish language is often spoken. The most common languages ​​also include Armenian, Adyghe (Circassian) and Turkmen. Various dialects of Aramaic can be found in some areas.

The most popular foreign languages ​​are French and English.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

Currency

Monetary unit of Syria- Syrian pound (SYP or S £), often called the Syrian lira. Has denominations: 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 (coins) and 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 (banknotes).

It is almost impossible to pay with foreign currency anywhere. You can exchange it in hotels, exchange offices and banks, where the rate is usually the most favorable. There is no commission charged for exchanging cash. Private currency exchange is officially prohibited, but in practice it is widespread. Reverse exchange of pounds is almost impossible.

Banks usually work from 8:30 to 13: 00-14: 00 from Saturday to Thursday, on Thursdays banks are open only in the morning. Exchange offices work from 8:30 to 19: 00-20: 00 on the same days.

Credit cards are accepted by a fairly limited number of establishments: they can be used to purchase air tickets, pay in large stores, in some offices of car rental companies and large hotels. It is almost impossible to get cash from a credit card in Syria.

Traveler's checks are accepted only at the office of the Commercial Bank of Syria, and a commission is charged for cashing them.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

Communication and communications

Phone code: 963

Internet domain: .sy

Tourist police - 222-00-00, police - 112, ambulance - 110

Telephone area codes

Damascus - 11, Aleppo - 21, Latakia - 41, Hama - 33, Homs - 31

How to call

To call from Russia to Syria, you need to dial: 8 - dial tone - 10 - 963 - area code - subscriber's number.

To call from Syria to Russia, you need to dial: 00 - 7 - area code - subscriber number.

Fixed connection

Payphones are located in all public places and work with both cards and coins. You can call abroad from hotels (through operators) and from specialized call centers (a call from most hotels is usually 25% more expensive).

mobile connection

Mobile communications in Syria of GSM 900/1800 standard.

Internet

The Internet in Syria is subject to censorship, some sites, such as Facebook.com or Youtube.com, are not accessible.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

Shopping

Shops are open from Saturday to Thursday from 9:30 to 14:00 and from 16:30 to 21:00. Many private shops operate on their own schedule. Many shopping is good in the markets, the best of which are in Damascus and Aleppo. It is, of course, recommended to bargain.

In Syria, many valuable products of local artisans are sold, made of mother-of-pearl, wood, fabric, leather and silver. Local souvenirs: spices, silver and gold jewelry, woodwork, silk scarves, national costumes, olive oil, sheep skins and sweets.

Unlike other countries, duty free shops in Syria are found everywhere, not just at the airport. Any goods purchased in "duty free" must be exported from the country and used only outside its borders. The goods in the store are usually packed, labeled with the name of the buyer and delivered to the airport before the departure of the flight, where they are handed to the buyer.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

Sea and beaches

Numerous beaches stretch along the coast of Latakia. The swimming season in the local shallow, and therefore well-warmed waters, lasts from May to November. The beaches are sandy, comfortable, well suited for families with children: there are practically no big waves here.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

Story

The history of Syrian civilization dates back at least to the fourth millennium BC. Archaeologists have proven that Syria was the cradle of most of the world's ancient civilizations. Already in 2400-2500 BC. e. a huge Semitic empire centered at Eble stretched from the Red Sea to the Transcaucasus.

Throughout its history, Syria fell under the rule of the Egyptians, Canaanites, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Armenians, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, Arabs and Crusaders, before eventually falling under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Syria occupies an important place in the history of Christianity - according to the Bible, Paul converted to the Christian faith in Antioch, where the first church was founded.

Islam took root in Syria in 636, when Damascus became the capital of the Arab Caliphate under the Umayyads. At this time, the Caliphate was already a powerful state, stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to Central Asia. Damascus became the cultural and economic center of the entire Arab world, already in the VIII century, being one of the largest cities in the world. In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty, after which the capital of the Caliphate moved to Baghdad.

In the middle of the 13th century, Damascus became the provincial center of the Mamluk Empire. In 1400 Syria was attacked by the Tatar-Mongols. Tamerlane defeated the Mamluk detachments, destroyed Damascus and took all its wealth to Samarkand.

In 1517, Syria fell under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for several centuries. Shortly after the defeat in World War I, the Ottoman Empire collapsed.

In 1920, the Syrian Arab Kingdom was founded with its center in Damascus. Faisal of the Hashemite dynasty, who later became king of Iraq, was declared king. But the independence of Syria did not last long. Within a few months, the French army occupied Syria, defeating Syrian troops on July 23 in the battle at the Meisaloun Pass. In 1922, the League of Nations decided to divide the former Syrian dominion of Turkey between Great Britain and France. Great Britain received Jordan and Palestine, and France - the modern territory of Syria and Lebanon (the so-called "League of Nations mandate").

In 1936, a treaty was signed between Syria and France providing for the independence of Syria, but in 1939 France refused to ratify it. In 1940, France itself was occupied by German troops, and Syria came under the control of the Vichy regime (governor - General Denz). Nazi Germany, having provoked the insurrection of Prime Minister Geylani in British Iraq, sent its Air Force units to Syria. In June - July 1941, with the support of British troops, the Free French units (later renamed the Fighting France), led by Generals De Gaulle and Catroux, entered Syria during a bloody conflict with the troops of Denz. General De Gaulle in his memoirs directly pointed out that the events in Iraq, Syria and Lebanon were directly related to the German plans to invade the USSR (as well as Greece, Yugoslavia and Crete), since they had the task of diverting the Allied armed forces to secondary theaters of military operations ...

On September 27, 1941, France granted independence to Syria, leaving its troops on its territory until the end of World War II. On January 26, 1945, Syria declared war on Germany and Japan. In April 1946, French troops were evacuated from Syria.

Shukri al-Kuwatli, who fought for the country's independence during the Ottoman Empire, became the president of independent Syria. In 1947, a parliament began to operate in Syria. The main political forces were the pro-presidential National Socialist Party of Syria (currently operating only in Lebanon), the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party and the then underground Communist Party of Syria.

In 1948, the Syrian army took a limited part in the Arab-Israeli war started by the alliance of Arab states.

On March 15, 1956, a collective security treaty was signed between Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia against possible Israeli aggression.

On February 22, 1958, in the wake of the popularity of the pan-Arab movement, Syria and Egypt united into one state - the United Arab Republic with its center in Cairo. Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser became the president of the new state, but the Syrians also held many important posts. However, Nasser soon dissolved all Syrian political parties. In Syria, a large-scale nationalization of agriculture began, and then industry and the banking sector. On September 28, 1961, a coup d'etat took place in Damascus under the leadership of a group of officers, and Syria re-declared its independence. Nasser decided not to resist the separatists, so the UAR existed for only 3 and a half years.

After Syria left the confederation, the country was led by the liberal Nazim Al-Qudsi. He returned many of the nationalized enterprises to their former owners. On March 28, 1962, a coup took place in the country again under the leadership of the same group of army officers. Al-Qudsi and his prime minister were arrested. After 5 days, supporters of the previous regime overthrew the interim government, and al-Qudsi again became the president of the country.

On March 8, 1963, a military coup took place in Syria again, as a result of which the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV), which is sometimes called "Baath" (ar. "Revival"), came to power.

In 1964, a new constitution was adopted, in which the leading role of the PASV was enshrined. The country was headed by Amin Hafez, who began radical socialist reforms. In particular, the nationalization of the main branches of the economy was carried out again.

On February 23, 1966, Syria was shaken for the fifth coup in 4 years under the leadership of Salah Jedid and Hafez al-Assad. Amin Hafez was overthrown, but PASV remained in power, and the socialist path of Syria's development remained largely unchanged.

In November 1970, as a result of the "correctional movement" in the PASV, led by H. al-Assad, Saleh Jedid's group was ousted from power. Thus, Syria became the main ally of the Soviet Union in the Middle East. The USSR helped Syria to modernize its economy and armed forces.

In 1967, during the Six Day War, the Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. In 1973, in the Yom Kippur War, Syria tried unsuccessfully to reclaim them. By the decision of the UN Security Council at the end of the 1973 war, a buffer zone was created separating Israel and Syria. The Golan Heights are currently controlled by Israel, but Syria is demanding their return.

In 1976, at the request of the Lebanese government, Syrian troops entered the country with the aim of stopping the civil war. The war ended in 1990, when a government was established in Lebanon maintaining friendly relations with Syria. Syrian troops left Lebanon only in 2005 after the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. Syria supported Iran in the Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988.

After the death of Hafez al-Assad, who ruled the country for almost 30 years, on June 10, 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad became president.

According to some reports, during the Israeli-Lebanese war in 2006, Syria supplied weapons to Hezbollah. This, in particular, is connected with the still strained relations between Syria and some Western countries.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

Golan heights

The territory of the Golan Heights is the Syrian province of Quneitra with its center in the city of the same name. Israeli forces captured the Golan Heights in 1967 and the region was under the control of the Israel Defense Forces until 1981. In 1974, the UN Emergency Force was brought into the region. Directly along the eastern border of the province of Quneitra, a demarcation line was drawn and a demilitarized zone was created. The UN Disengagement Observer Force is based in the area.

In 1981, the Knesset of Israel passed the Golan Heights Law, which unilaterally proclaimed Israel's sovereignty over the territory. The annexation was invalidated by the UN Security Council Resolution of December 17, 1981 and condemned by the UN General Assembly in 2008.

The city of Katzrin became the center of the Israeli Golan. The majority of the non-Jewish population in the Golan is Druze, retaining Syrian citizenship (they have been granted the right to acquire Israeli citizenship). In Syria, they enjoy some privileges, in particular, they are guaranteed free higher education.

In 2005, the population of the Golan Heights was approximately 40 thousand people, including 20 thousand Druze, 19 thousand Jews and about 2 thousand Alawites. The largest settlement in the region is the Druze village of Majdal Shams (8,800 people). Initially, only UNDOF personnel were allowed free movement between Syria and Israel. But in 1988, Israeli authorities allowed Druze pilgrims to cross into Syria so that they could visit the Temple of Abel, located in the neighboring province of Dara. Also, since 1967, Druze brides who decide to marry a Syrian have been allowed to go over to the Syrian side, and they are already losing the right to return.

Syria and Israel are de jure in a state of war, since a peace treaty between these countries has not yet been signed.

In August 2007, Israel, for the first time since 1967, began to phase out its military presence in the Golan.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

The name Syria comes from the ancient Greek name for the colonies of Assyria, formed from the Semitic word "Sirion". The area on the eastern Mediterranean coast south of Cilicia, between Egypt and Mesopotamia, including Commagene, Sophena and Adiabena, Pliny the Elder describes as "the former Assyria." By the time Pliny finished his main work - "Natural History", this region was divided by the Roman Empire into several provinces: Judea (later - Palestine, modern Israel, PNA and part of Jordan), Phenicia (modern Lebanon), Mesopotamia and Polaya Syria.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

Entry into Syria will be denied to Israeli citizens and travelers with any proof of visiting Israel (including stamps in passports that put tourists in their passports when crossing the land borders of Egypt (Jordan) and Israel). If you have an Israeli stamp in your passport - you need to get a new passport or choose another country to travel.

Traveling around the country is best done in the spring, from March to May, or in the fall, from September to November, when the weather conditions are most favorable. The beach season lasts here from May to November.

Hospitality is one of the most important Syrian traditions. One should not refuse such an invitation so as not to offend the owner - in most cases such invitations are made with all the heart. It is considered impolite to refuse the offered coffee.

Women traveling alone may receive too much attention from Syrian men. However, this attention is usually limited to glances or feeble attempts to engage in conversation.

The Syrians, like all Arabs, eat with their right hand. It is considered appropriate to take food from the dish with your hand or pick up the sauce from the plate with a flat cake. It is not customary to eat while standing or on the move, as well as to look in the face of a person busy with food. Bread is usually broken by hand. You should also take food, money and things with your right hand.

During the handshake, you should not look into the eyes of the interlocutor, and you should also not keep your other hand in your pocket or swing it vigorously in the air (especially with a cigarette). You can not bypass the front of the worshipers. When entering mosques and at home, you should take off your shoes.

It is prohibited to photograph government offices, palaces, military and transport objects. In Christian churches, before filming, you must ask permission (usually there are no objections). But in mosques there is no point in even asking: you cannot shoot there. Also, you should not take pictures of local women without permission. Documents (or even better - their photocopies) should always be carried with you.

In addition, while in Syria, do not forget about the hot climate and active sun: you need to use sunscreen, drink more fluids and protect your eyes with sunglasses.

Local tap water is usually chlorinated and relatively safe to drink, but bottled water is best consumed internally.

The Koran prohibits the use of alcohol, but in Syria, this issue is practically not raised. Alcoholic drinks can be purchased at any store, restaurant or bar, but they should not be drunk in front of everyone. Restrictions on the sale of alcohol are introduced during Ramadan.

Since the fall of 2009, a ban on smoking in public places has been in effect in Syria. Smokers caught with a cigarette or pipe in cafes, bars and restaurants now face a fine of 2,000 Syrian pounds ($ 46). The ban also applies to hookah smoking. Owners of establishments, on whose territory violators are caught, will also be fined, and in some cases even prosecuted. In addition, a number of restrictions have been introduced on advertising of tobacco products.

The country, although a socialist leaven, is Muslim, so you need to dress appropriately. Clothing should be modest. In Damascus and in cities along the coast, they still turn a blind eye to this, but in the conservative cities of the center of the country, and even more so in the outback, they treat inappropriate outfits with obvious hostility. And in Hama, they can throw stones at all. No tight fitting clothes! It is better for women to cover their arms and legs. Men will have to give up shorts and sleeveless T-shirts.

It is best to avoid political conversations with “locals” to avoid possible problems. Problems may arise, first of all, just among the "local" - since there are many police officers in civilian clothes around, as well as informers (informers).

Every major city in Syria has a Tourist information center, where you can get all kinds of information and free maps of the country and its parts. In Damascus, Tourist information is located opposite the Russian Cultural Center, on May 29 street, main street cities. In Aleppo, the Tourist information center can be found near the Central Bank, on the edge of Alrais platz.

Last changes: 09.05.2013

How to get to Syria

Attention! Currently, almost all international air and railway communication with Syria has been terminated due to the protracted civil war in this country.

By plane

There is direct regular air service between Russia and Syria. Moscow and Damascus are connected by regular flights of Aeroflot (on Thursdays and Sundays from Sheremetyevo-2) and Syrian Airlines (on Tuesdays and Saturdays from Vnukovo). Flight time is about 3.5 hours.

Many European air carriers also fly to Syria.

Flights to Damascus from Almaty, Kiev and Minsk are operated by Turkish Airlines.

By train

Weekly trains run from Aleppo to Istanbul (Turkey), from Damascus to Baghdad (Iraq) and Tehran (Iran) via Aleppo, and also to Amman (Jordan). The fare to Istanbul and Tehran varies from $ 45 to $ 70 one way in a car the highest category... The fare to Jordan is about $ 5.

At the same time, traveling to Amman by train can be recommended only to lovers of rail travel who have a significant amount of free time. This is an ancient narrow-gauge line (Hejaz railway), built by the Turks. The average train speed is 30 km / h, so the distance between the two capitals (300 km) is covered all day long with a change in the border town of Daraa (trains leave Damascus at 8 am and arrive at their destination at 22:00).

The Daraa - Amman train leaves once a week on Saturdays at 18.00. The cost of travel by train is slightly lower than by bus (train - $ 5, bus - about $ 7-8), and the time spent on the bus is half that. However, it is best to travel to cities such as Istanbul and Tehran by train.

By bus

Damascus and Aleppo have good bus connections with neighboring states.

Buses run from Aleppo to Turkish Hatay (Antakya) and Istanbul, as well as to Beirut, Cairo and Baghdad. From Damascus you can get by bus and minibus to Beirut, Jordanian Amman with Irbid and Iraqi Baghdad. The fare for cross-border transport from Damascus is: Beirut (up to 20 times a day) - $ 8-10 by shuttle taxi and $ 4-5 by bus, Amman (10-15 times a day) - $ 10 by shuttle taxi and $ 8 by bus.

In addition, there are route taxis from Damascus and Aleppo to major cities of neighboring states: Tripoli (Lebanon), Irbid (Jordan), Antakya (Turkey) and many others.

Airport tax when departing from Syrian airports - 32 USD (1500 SYP). Since the summer of 2009, some airlines have included this tax in their airfare.

When leaving (land and sea borders) from Syria, a fee of 12 USD (550 SYP) will be charged.

Last changes: 03/14/2017 Details Category: Countries of Western Asia Published on November 21, 2013 10:59 Hits: 11327

Civilization originated here in the 4th century. BC. According to Karl Baedecker, the German founder of the publishing house of travel guides to different cities and countries, the capital of Syria, Damascus, is the oldest existing capital in the world.

Modern state Syrian Arab Republic borders Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Iraq and Turkey. Washed in the west by the Mediterranean Sea.

State symbols

Flag- the modern flag of Syria was reintroduced in 1980. Previously, this flag was used by the United Arab Republic.
The colors of the flag are traditional for the flags of the Arab countries. Two stars mean Egypt and Syria - two peoples that entered the United Arab Republic. Green color- the color of the Fatimids (dynasty of Muslim caliphs from 969 to 1171), white - Umayyads (dynasty of caliphs, founded by Mu'awiyah in 661), black - Abbasids (second (after the Umayyads) dynasty of Arab caliphs (750-1258) and red - blood of martyrs; also red is the color of the Hashemite dynasty and was added when Sharif Hussein joined the Arab uprising in 1916.

Coat of arms- represents a golden "hawk of the Quraysh", having a shield on its chest, twice cut into a scarlet, silver and black with two green five-pointed stars one above the other in the middle (the colors of the flag of Syria). In its paws, a hawk holds a green scroll on which the name of the state is written in Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية (al-Jumhuriyya al-Arabiyya al-Suriyya). On the tail there are two diverging green ears of wheat.

State structure of modern Syria

Form of government- parliamentary republic.
Head of state- the president. Elected for 7 years, the number of consecutive terms of office is not limited.
Head of the government- Prime Minister.
Official language- Arabic. The most common languages ​​also include Kurdish, Armenian, Adyghe (Circassian) and Turkmen. The most popular foreign languages ​​are Russian, French and English.
Capital- Damascus.
Largest cities- Aleppo, Damascus, Homs.
Territory- 185 180 km².
Population- 22 457 336 people About 90% of the country's population are Syrian Arabs (including about 400,000 Palestinian refugees). The largest national minority is the Kurds (9% of the population of Syria). The third largest ethnic group in the country is the Syrian Turkmen, then the Circassians; there is also a large Assyrian community in the country.
Currency- Syrian pound.
Economy- the most developed industries: oil, oil refining, electricity, gas, phosphate mining, food, textile, chemical (fertilizer, plastics), electrical.
Only a third of Syria's territory is suitable for agriculture. Cotton, livestock products, vegetables and fruits are produced.
Political instability, hostilities and trade and economic sanctions imposed on Syria have led to a deterioration in the state of the Syrian economy.
Export: oil, minerals, fruits and vegetables, textiles. Import: industrial products, food.

Damascus University

Education- in 1950, free and compulsory primary education was introduced. Currently, there are about 10 thousand primary and more than 2.5 thousand secondary schools in Syria; 267 vocational schools (including 107 women), 4 universities.
Textbooks in secondary school (under the rule of B. Assad) are issued free of charge up to grade 9 inclusive.
Damascus University was founded in 1903. It is the leading institution of higher education in the country. The second most important is the University of Aleppo, founded in 1946 as the Faculty of Engineering at Damascus University, but in 1960 became an independent educational institution. In 1971, Tishrin University was established in Latakia. The youngest university founded in Homs is Al-Baath University. A large number of Syrians receive higher education abroad, mainly in Russia and France.

Syrian landscape

Climate- arid, subtropical Mediterranean, in the interior - continental.
Administrative division- Syria is divided into 14 governorates, the head of which is appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs after the approval of the Cabinet of Ministers. A local parliament is elected in each governorate.
Golan Heights. The territory of the Golan Heights is the Syrian governorate of El-Quneitra with its center in the city of the same name. Israeli forces captured the Golan Heights in 1967, and until 1981 the region was under the control of the Israel Defense Forces. In 1974, the UN Emergency Force was brought in here.
In 1981, the Knesset of Israel passed the Golan Heights Law, which unilaterally proclaimed Israel's sovereignty over the territory. The annexation was invalidated by the UN Security Council Resolution of December 17, 1981 and condemned by the UN General Assembly in 2008.

In 2005, the population of the Golan Heights was approximately 40 thousand people, including 20 thousand Druze (an Arabic-speaking ethno-confessional group in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel), 19 thousand Jews and about 2 thousand Alawites (a number of Islamic religious trends, branches or sects). The largest settlement in the region is the Druze village of Majdal Shams (8,800 people).
Syria and Israel are de jure in a state of war, since a peace treaty between these countries has not yet been signed.
Religion- approximately 86% of the population of Syria is Muslim, 10% is Christian. Of the Muslims, 82% are Sunnis, the rest are Alawites and Ismailis, as well as Shiites, constantly increasing due to the flow of refugees from Iraq.
Among Christians, half are Syrian Orthodox Christians, 18% are Catholics.

There are significant communities of the Armenian Apostolic and Russian Orthodox Churches.
Currently, there are people in Syria, Iraq and other countries who want to create a split between Sunnis and Shiites.

Sunnis- the most numerous trend in Islam. Sunni theologians (ulema), unlike Shiites, do not exercise the right to make their own decisions on the most important issues of religious and social life. The position of a theologian in Sunnism is reduced primarily to the interpretation of sacred texts. Sunnis place special emphasis on following the sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (his actions and sayings), on loyalty to tradition, on the participation of the community in choosing its head - the caliph.
Shiites- the direction of Islam, uniting various communities that recognized Ali ibn Abu Talib and his descendants as the only legitimate heirs and spiritual successors of the Prophet Muhammad. A distinctive feature of the Shiites is the belief that the leadership of the Muslim community should belong to the imams - appointed by God, elected persons from among the descendants of the prophet, to whom they include Ali ibn Abu Talib and his descendants from the daughter of Muhammad Fatima, and not elected persons - the caliphs.
Russia is worried about attacks on Christian minorities in Syria.
Chapel of St. Ananias in Damascus
Military establishment- includes the Ground Forces, Air Force, Navy and Air Defense Forces. The president is the supreme commander in chief of the armed forces.
Sport- the most popular are football, basketball, swimming and table tennis.

Syrian culture

Syria, as the most ancient state in the world, is the cradle of many civilizations and cultures. Here the Ugaritic cuneiform was born and one of the first forms of writing - Phoenician (XIV century BC). Contribution to the development of Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine cultures was made by the Syrian leaders, the scientist Antiochus of Ascalon, the writer Lucian of Samosata, the historians Herodian, Ammianus Marcellinus, John Malala, John of Ephesus, Yeshu Stylite, Yahya of Antioch, Michael the Syrian.

Lucian of Samosata in his satirical works, he ridicules social, religious and philosophical prejudices, as well as other vices of his contemporary society. His work "True Story", describing the trip to the moon and Venus, influenced the formation of science fiction.

John Chrysostom. Byzantine mosaic

John Zlatoust(c. 347-407) - Archbishop of Constantinople, theologian, revered as one of the three Ecumenical hierarchs and teachers, together with Saints Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian.
St. John Chrysostom. Byzantine mosaic
Also known are Christian theologians Paul of Samosatsky, John Chrysostom, Ephraim the Syrian, John Damascene.
In the XII century. in Syria, the famous warrior and writer Osama ibn Munkyz lived and worked, the author of the autobiographical chronicle "Book of Edification" - the most valuable source on the history of the Crusades.

Old houses in Damascus

The city of Damascus was one of the world centers for the production of bladed weapons, the famous "Damascus steel".
In modern Syrian society, special attention is paid to the institution of family and religion and education.
Modern life in Syria is intertwined with ancient traditions. In the old quarters of Damascus, Aleppo and other Syrian cities, living quarters are preserved, located around one or several courtyards, as a rule, with a fountain in the center, with citrus orchards. vines, and flowers.
The most famous Syrian writers of the 20th century: Adonis, Gada al-Samman, Nizar Kabbani, Hannah Meena and Zakaria Tamer.

Adonis (Ali Ahmad Said Asbar) (b.1930)

Syrian poet and essayist. He lived mainly in Lebanon and France. Author of over 20 books in his native Arabic language, he is considered the most significant representative of the New Poetry movement.

Nizar Qabbani (1923-1998)

Syrian poet, publisher, diplomat. One of the most important Arab poets of the XX century. He is one of the founders of modern Arabic poetry. The Kabbani poems are mostly written simple language, often reflecting the realities of the Syrian spoken language, a contemporary poet. Kabbani has published 35 collections of poetry.
Cinematography in Syria not very developed, it is completely in the hands of the state. On average, Syria releases 1-2 films a year. Films are often censored. Famous directors include Amirali Omar, Osama Mohammed and Abdel Hamid, Abdul Razzak Ghanem (Abu Ghanem) and others. Many Syrian filmmakers work abroad. But in the 1970s, Syrian-made serials were popular in the Arab world.
Together with the Syrian film studio "Ghanem-Film", feature films were shot in the USSR and Russia: "The Last Night of Scheherazade" (1987), "Richard the Lionheart" (1992), "Destroy the Thirtieth!" (1992), Angels of Death (1993), dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Stalingrad, Tragedy of the Century (1993), Great Commander Georgy Zhukov (1995), etc.

Nature

There are five natural regions on the territory of Syria: the Primorskaya Lowland, the Western Mountain Range, the Rift Zone, the Eastern Mountain Range, and the Plateau of Eastern Syria. The country is crossed by two large rivers: El-Asi (Orontes) and the Euphrates. Arable land is mainly in the western regions - the coastal lowland, the Ansaria mountains and the valleys of the El-Asi, Euphrates and its tributaries.

Euphrates river

Syria's natural vegetation has changed significantly. In the distant past, the Ansariya ridge in the west and the mountains in the north of the country were covered with forests.
In Western Syria, in the least disturbed habitats on the mountain slopes, evergreen oaks, laurel, myrtle, oleander, magnolia, and ficuses prevail. There are groves of cypress, Aleppo pine, Lebanese cedar and juniper.

Magnolia flowers

Along the Mediterranean coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton and sugar cane. Figs, mulberry trees, citrus fruits are grown in river valleys, and olives and grapes are grown on gentle slopes.

Olive Tree

Corn, barley and wheat are sown in the fields. Potatoes and vegetables are also grown. In the north and partly on the eastern slopes of the Ansariya ridge and others, and in the low mountains of the interior parts of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are widespread, which serve as a fodder base for pasture cattle breeding (mainly sheep breeding). Wheat and barley, cotton are grown in the fields, and rice is grown under conditions of artificial irrigation.
In deserts, the landscape revives only after rain, young shoots of grasses and dwarf shrubs and bushes appear: saxaul, biyurgun, boyalich, wormwood. But even such a poor vegetation cover is enough to feed the camels, which are bred by nomads.

Animal world Syria is not very diverse. Of the predators, sometimes there are wild cats, lynx, jackal, fox, striped hyena, caracal, in the steppes and semi-deserts there are many ferrets, among ungulates - antelope, gazelle, wild donkey onager.

Wild ass onager

Rodents are numerous. Sometimes there are porcupines, hedgehogs, squirrels, and hares. Reptiles: snakes, lizards, chameleons. The fauna of birds is diverse, especially in the Euphrates valley and near water bodies (flamingos, storks, seagulls, herons, geese, pelicans).

In the country there are larks, sand grouses, bustards, in cities and villages - sparrows and pigeons, in groves - cuckoos. Among birds of prey, there are eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Syria

Old city in Damascus

Damascus has seven surviving city gates in the wall of the Old City, the oldest of which date back to the Roman period:
Bab-el-Sagir ("Small Gate") - behind the gate there are historical graves, in particular, 2 wives of the Prophet Muhammad are buried here
Bab el-Faradis ("Paradise Gate")
Bab al-Salam ("Gate of the World")
Bab Tuma ("Gate of Thomas") - the name goes back to the name of the Apostle Thomas, leads to the Christian quarter of the Old City

"Gate of Thomas"

Bab Sharki ("Eastern Gate")
Bab Kisan - built during the Roman era, were dedicated to the god Saturn. Through them, according to legend, the Apostle Paul fled from Damascus
Bab al-Jabiya

Old town in Bosra

Bosra- a historical city in the south of Syria, an important archaeological site. For the first time, the settlement is mentioned in documents from the times of Thutmose III and Amenhotep IV (XIV century BC). Bosra was the first Nabatean city in the second century BC. e. The Nabataean kingdom was conquered by Cornelius Palma, General of Trajan, in 106 AD. e.

Under the rule of the Roman Empire, Bosra was renamed New Trajan Bostrem and became the capital of the Roman province of Arabia Petra. In Bosra, two early Christian churches were built in 246 and 247.
Subsequently, after the division of the Roman Empire into western and eastern, the city came under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. The city was finally conquered by the army of the Arab Caliphate in 634.
Today Bosra is an important archaeological site containing ruins from Roman, Byzantine and Muslim times, as well as one of the best-preserved Roman theaters in the world, which hosts a national music festival every year.

Archaeological sites of Palmyra

Palmyra(Greek "city of palm trees") - one of the richest cities of late antiquity, located in one of the oases of the Syrian desert, between Damascus and the Euphrates.
It was a staging post for caravans crossing the Syrian desert, which is why Palmyra was nicknamed "the bride of the desert."
Currently, on the site of Palmyra, there is a Syrian village and the ruins of majestic structures that are among the best examples of ancient Roman architecture.
Several cities in the United States are named after Palmyra. St. Petersburg was poetically called the northern Palmyra, and Odessa was called the southern.

Old town in Aleppo

Hleb (Aleppo)- the largest city in Syria and the center of the most populous governorate of the same name in the country.
For many centuries Aleppo was the largest city in Greater Syria and the third largest in the Ottoman Empire, after Constantinople and Cairo.
Aleppo is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, it was inhabited already by the 6th century. BC e.

Castles of Krak de Chevalier and Qalat Salah ad Din

Crack de Chevalier, or Crack de l'Hospital- Fortress of the Hospitallers (a Christian organization whose purpose was to care for the poor). One of the best preserved Hospitaller fortresses in the world.

Citadel of Salah ad-Din- a castle in Syria, located in the highlands, on a ridge between two deep ravines, and surrounded by forests. Fortification has existed here since the middle of the 10th century.
In 975 the Byzantine emperor John I of Tzimiskes captured the castle, it remained under Byzantine control until about 1108. At the beginning of the XII century. the Franks took it under their control, and the castle became part of the newly formed crusader state - the principality of Antioch.
The castle is currently owned by the Syrian government.

Ancient villages of northern Syria

Remained only the ruins of 40 settlements, which are combined into 8 groups.

Other sights of Syria

Umayyad Mosque

Also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus. Located in the Old City of Damascus, it is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered by some Muslims to be the fourth holiest site in Islam.

Fortress Nimrod

A medieval fortress located in the northern part of the Golan Heights, at an altitude of about 800 m above sea level.

Qasioun Mountains

Mountains overlooking the city of Damascus. The highest point is 1151 m. On the slopes of Qasiun there is a cave about which there are many legends. It is believed that it was here that the first man Adam, expelled from paradise, settled. In medieval Arabic history books, it is written that in this place Cain killed Abel.

National Museum in Damascus

The museum was founded in 1919. It displays exhibits of the history of Syria from prehistoric times to the present. The museum contains contemporary works by artists from Syria, the Arab world and other countries.

Chapel of Saint Paul (Damascus)

Built in honor of the Apostle Paul, who preached in Damascus.

Mountain hills of syria

The country has very beautiful landscapes: rocky mountains, green valleys, deserts and mountain peaks, always covered with snow.

History of Syria

Ancient history

The history of the Syrian civilization dates back to the 4th century. BC e.
The Eblaite language (an extinct Semitic language) is the oldest known Semitic language. Found more than 17 thousand clay tablets in this language, dedicated to crafts, agriculture and art. Among the leading crafts of Ebla are the processing of wood, ivory, pearls.

Ebla's Clay Tablet

During the period between the invasion of the Canaanite tribes and the conquest of Syria in 64 BC. e. By the Roman Empire, its territory was ruled by the Hyksos, Hittites, Egyptians, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, ancient Macedonians, the Seleucid Hellenistic state, and the Armenian Empire of Tigran II the Great.
Since the XVI century. BC e. in the south of Syria, there is the city of Damascus, originally subordinate to the Egyptian pharaohs.
According to the Bible, Paul converted to Christianity on the way to Damascus, and then lived in Antioch, where Christ's disciples first began to be called Christians.

Islam in Syria

Islam took root in Syria in 661, when Damascus became the capital of the Arab Caliphate under the Umayyads. Damascus became the cultural and economic center of the entire Arab world, already in the VIII century. being one of the largest cities in the world. In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty, after which the capital of the Caliphate moved to Baghdad.
From 1517 Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire for 4 centuries.

Syrian Arab Kingdom

It was formed shortly after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, and it collapsed. In 1920, the Syrian Arab Kingdom was founded with its center in Damascus. But the independence of Syria did not last long. Within a few months, the French army occupied Syria, defeating the Syrian troops in the battle at the Maisaloun Pass. In 1922, the League of Nations divided the former Syrian possessions of the Ottoman Empire between Great Britain and France. Great Britain received Jordan and Palestine, and France - the modern territory of Syria and Lebanon ("League of Nations mandate").

French Mandate

In 1940, France was occupied by German troops and Syria came under the control of the Vichy regime (governor General Denz). Vichy mode- the collaborationist regime in southern France during the occupation of northern France by Nazi Germany after the defeat at the beginning of World War II and the fall of Paris in 1940. It existed from July 10, 1940 to April 22, 1945. Officially adhered to a policy of neutrality. Nazi Germany, having provoked the insurrection of Prime Minister Geylani in British Iraq, sent its Air Force units to Syria.

Charles de Gaulle - eighteenth President of France

In 1941, with the support of British troops, Free French units led by Generals Charles de Gaulle and Catroux entered Syria during a bloody conflict with Denz's troops. General de Gaulle, in his memoirs, pointed out that the events in Iraq, Syria and Lebanon were directly related to the German plans to invade Greece, Yugoslavia and the USSR, as they had the task of diverting the Allied armed forces to secondary theaters of war.
On September 27, 1941, France granted independence to Syria, leaving its troops on its territory until the end of World War II. On January 26, 1945, Syria declared war on Germany and Japan. In April 1946, French troops were evacuated from Syria.

Independent Syria

Shukri al-Quatli, who fought for the country's independence during the Ottoman Empire, became the president of independent Syria.

Shukri al-Quatli

In 1947, a parliament began to operate in Syria. After Syria gained independence, attacks on Syrian Jews intensified and their business was boycotted. The new government banned emigration to Palestine, and the teaching of Hebrew in Jewish schools was restricted. On November 27, 1947, the UN decided to partition Palestine, in connection with this, Jewish pogroms took place in Syria. The pogroms continued in 1948, and in subsequent years, as a result, the Jews were forced to almost completely flee from Syria to Israel, the United States and the countries of South America; currently, less than 100 Syrian Jews live in Damascus and Lattakia.
In 1948, the Syrian army took a limited part in the Arab-Israeli war, started by the League of Arab States, after which a state of emergency was declared in the country. Colonel Husni al-Zaym came to power, abolishing the 1930 constitution, banning political parties and subsequently proclaiming himself president. He did not enjoy the support of the people and was removed after 4 months by his former comrades. Executed on 14 August near Damascus.
The civilian regime was reinstated by Colonel Sami Hinawi, but was soon ousted by the military leader Adeeb al-Shishakli. On September 5, 1950, a new constitution was proclaimed, according to which Syria became a parliamentary republic, but in November 1951 the constitution was suspended and the country's parliament was dissolved. In 1953 Shishakli promulgated a new constitution and became president after a referendum.

President Adib al-Shishakli

In February 1954, a civil-military coalition headed by Hashim Bey Khalid Al-Atassi came to power and returned the 1950 constitution.In 1954, following elections, the Arab Socialist Revival Party won the majority of seats in parliament, demanding radical reforms in industry and agriculture. In the elections in 1955, Shukri al-Quatli was elected president of the country with the support of Saudi Arabia.
On March 15, 1956, a collective security treaty was signed between Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia against possible Israeli aggression.

United Arab Republic

On February 22, 1958, Syria and Egypt united into one state - the United Arab Republic with its center in Cairo. Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser became president, but the Syrians held many important posts until Nasser dissolved all Syrian political parties. On September 28, 1961, a coup d'etat took place in Damascus under the leadership of a group of officers, and Syria re-declared its independence. Nasser did not resist. The UAR existed for only 3.5 years.

Confrontation between Syria and Israel

In the period from 1962 to 1966. in Syria, there were 5 coups, when the nationalization of the main sectors of the economy was carried out and canceled.
In 1967, the Six Day War broke out. The Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. The Israeli air strikes have caused enormous damage to the economy. The government was unable to ensure the restoration of industry, anti-government actions began. In November 1970, Saleh Jedid's group was removed from power. Syria became the main ally of the Soviet Union in the Middle East. The USSR helped Syria to modernize its economy and armed forces.
In 1973, Syria, along with other Arab states launched the Yom Kippur War, military operations on the Syrian front were notable for fierceness, especially the battle for El-Quneitra, called "Syrian Stalingrad". El-Quneitru managed to hold, but the Golan Heights remained with Israel. By the decision of the UN Security Council, at the end of the war in 1973, a buffer zone was created separating Israel and Syria. The Golan Heights are currently controlled by Israel, but Syria is demanding their return.
In 1976, at the request of the Lebanese government, Syrian troops entered the country to stop the civil war. The war ended in 1990 with the establishment of a government in Lebanon that maintains friendly relations with Syria. Syrian troops left Lebanon only in 2005. Syria supported Iran in the Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1988.
After the death of Hafez al-Assad, who ruled the country for almost 30 years, on June 10, 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad was elected president.

Bashar al-Assad

Civil War

Riots and revolutions in the Middle East spread to Syria. Speeches began with demands to change the existing regime. The country's leadership made serious changes: it canceled the law on the state of emergency, laws on the media and political parties, and went for democratic reforms.
In 2013, there were street fighting with heavy weapons in several major cities of the country, including the capital. More than 500,000 Syrians fled their country as a result of the fighting. Refugees find refuge in Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq.
Currently, the civil war in Syria is being fueled by some Western countries.
Russia voted against the draft resolution "Situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic". It has been co-sponsored by a number of countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Saudi Arabia and Turkey. 123 countries voted for the adoption of the project, 46 countries voted against.
"The proposed draft resolution acts contrary to the logic of political and diplomatic settlement, placing the main responsibility for what is happening in the country on the government, while not it, but the foreign opposition needs to be pushed to start negotiations with the authorities," the Russian Foreign Ministry spokesman said.

Syria is one of the countries with the most ancient civilization, connecting three continents. The history of Syria goes back over five millennia. Thanks to the evidence of archeology, we can say that human settlements existed here for several millennia BC. The first traces of a man on earth, living about a million years ago, were found in the territory of present-day Syria, in the region of Latakia and the Orontes River. Later, in the fertile valley of the Euphrates, people switched from a nomadic lifestyle to agriculture. The result of this was the formation in the X-VIII millennium BC. Natufian culture, which spread to the banks of the Nile. The ruins of the city of Ugarit are living proof of this. In those days, there were settlements of the Canaanite tribes, or Amorites, who were engaged in semi-nomadic cattle breeding.

In the VI-III millennia BC. the emergence of the first states begins, similar in type and location to the Sumerian civilization. The most famous of them is the ancient city of Mari, which was covered with sand, and later was found by archaeologists.
At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. here the first slave-owning states arose. Subsequently, they become objects of the predatory aspirations of the large states of antiquity, which were rapidly emerging, and sometimes just as quickly disappearing.

Long before the rise of the Roman Empire, the entire coastal territory of Syria was inhabited by "Phoenicians" - West Semitic tribes. They knew how to cultivate grain crops, flax, olives, grapes, they had a complex system of underground pipelines, through the channels of which water was supplied to remote regions of the country, large dams were built on the rivers. The high level of development of the Phoenicians is evidenced by archaeological finds along the Orontes (Al Asy) and Barada rivers. The development of irrigation agriculture led to the fact that in the Hellenic era the country turned into the richest granary in the Mediterranean.

The favorable geographical location between Asia, Europe and Africa at all times contributed to the development of international relations of Syria, its trade and the prosperity of cities. Naturally, such a land has always been the target of the conquests of warring tribes and neighbors. For the conquest of Syria, Egypt, the Hittite kingdom, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, and later Macedonia, Rome, Byzantium and the European states during the era of the Crusades, fought fiercely. The conquerors exported slaves, grain, livestock, gold, timber, etc. from the country. And of course, they all left their mark on the population, and on the languages, culture, and faith of ancient Syria. A huge list of tribes and peoples who lived in different time in Syria.

Ancient Syria.

In the XXIV century. BC. In northern Mesopotamia, King Sargon created a strong Akkadian state, whose army more than once carried out military campaigns in Syria. Akkad did not last long and fell under the blows of the Amorites (Amorites) who came from Arabia.

In the XVII century. BC. formed a lot of small states with a mixed population from the northern tribes - Hurrian and local Semitic - Amorites. The largest city-states were Yamhad, centered in Aleppo, Amurru and Katna in Central Syria, and the strongest slave-owning power, the Damascus kingdom. Several centuries later, it is part of Assyria, the New Babylonian kingdom, the ancient Persian kingdom of the Achaemenids, the empire of Alexander the Great, the Hellenistic state of the Seleucids.
At the beginning of the XVI century. BC. in the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Hurrians created the state of Mitanni. It also claimed Syria and Palestine against the Hittite state and Egypt. But Mitanni did not last long. Just three decades later, the Egyptians, under the leadership of Pharaoh Thutmose I, conquered its territory. Since that time, the great battle for Syria began between the Egyptian pharaohs and the Hittites. And only in 1312 BC. after the bloody battle of Kadesh, an official border was established between the two kingdoms, which ran in the area of ​​modern Homs.

In the XII-XI centuries. BC. Syria, Phenicia and Mesopotamia were overrun by the tribes of the northern nomad Arameans. Later, in the 1st millennium BC. their language (Aramaic) spreads over most of Southwest Asia. In the same era, the first Arab tribes penetrated this territory.

In the VIII century. BC. The Damascus kingdom was conquered by the Assyrians, and later by the Babylonian army of Nebuchadnezzar II, and then by the Persians. Syria simply changed its owner, while the main battles for this entire territory took place in Mesopotamia (350-500 km away in the Euphrates Valley on the territory of modern Iraq).

In the VI century. BC. the entire territory of Syria is part of the ancient Persian kingdom of the Achaemenids, and after its defeat in 333 BC. Greco-Macedonian army to the empire of Alexander the Great. At this time, the Greek language and culture spread on the territory of the Great Empire. After the collapse of the Macedonian Empire, Syria became a province of the Greek Seleucid state.

From 64 BC the conquest of Syria continues. The Romans come here after the Palmyrian kingdom fell before them, which occupied most of the territory of Syria from Egypt to Asia Minor. The ruins of Palmyra have survived to this day and never cease to amaze tourists with their splendor.

The Roman Empire.

The commander Gnei Pompey annexes a significant part of Syria to Roman possessions, thus expanding his southern province of Arabia. He makes Bosra the capital of the province. In this era, literate "Syrian" emperors appeared on the Roman throne: Caracala (211-217), Philip I the Arab (244-249) from Shahba, who is depicted on the Syrian 100 lira banknote.

In the III century. AD, the kingdom of Palmyra, led by the warlike queen Zinobia, revolts against the Romans, and gradually conquering neighboring lands and cities, extends its power to the entire territory of Syria and part of Egypt. Not being defeated by a woman, the Romans send whole galleons to war with Zinobia, and in 272 they seize Palmyra, rob it and completely destroy it. The queen is brought in gold shackles to Rome, Zinobia lived in Rome as a famous and revered captive, and died there.

From IV to VII centuries. Syria became a province of the Byzantine Empire, but at this time Byzantium was weakened by internal contradictions, the exacerbation of the class struggle against the background of religious persecution, ineffective slave labor, etc. And at this time in the VII century. the Arabs freely penetrate into Byzantium. During the Arab conquest, Islam spread rapidly in Syria.

Arab Caliphates.

Covering not only Syria, but also a number of countries of Western Asia, North Africa and even Europe, the Arab conquest led to the emergence of the Arab Caliphate - the largest world power of the early Middle Ages. In 635, Damascus became the capital of the feudal Umayyad caliphate, which stretched from Spain to India. The main population of Syria accepts the Arabic language and converts to Islam. The rapid spread of Islam is explained not only by the previous bloody persecution of Christians, but also by economic benefits. So, for example, from non-Muslims, the caliph collected the kharaj tax, which was half of the harvest. Then, as a Muslim, for the same he paid only tithes. Also, non-Muslims were initially taxed with a heavy poll (from each soul) tax - jizya. But this benefit did not last long. As soon as Islam took hold in most territories, the Arabs began to think about making money. After Caliph Abbas, Muhammad's uncle, came to power in 750, Muslim converts ceased to be exempt from the poll tax.

In the VIII-XI centuries. Baghdad becomes the capital of the Arab Caliphate, because of this, Syria, although it still plays some role in the Caliphate, loses some privileges.

After the disintegration of the Arab Caliphate into several independent states, Syria remained under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty (969-1171) and replaced by the Ayyubids (1171-1260). The founder of the last dynasty was the famous Salah ad-Din, an implacable rival of the crusaders.

In 1260-1303 during the raids of the Mongols, the country was under the rule of the Mamluks. The Mamluks are the generals who overthrew the Ayyubids and seized power in Egypt. Thanks to their military training, discipline and clear organization, only the Mamluks managed to contain the Mongol army. But in the early 1400s. Syria still underwent a short (less than a year) but devastating raid by Tamerlane's army.

Crusades.

In 1098, a wave of an ardent religious rush of Europeans for the possession of the Holy Sepulcher reached the borders of the state of Bilyad Al-Sham (the territory of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine).

During the First Crusade, the most destructive of all, the crusaders captured Antioch, then all of Syria, and in 1099. Jerusalem. Moving south to Palestine, along the entire coast, the Crusaders erected many defensive structures - fortresses-citadels, many of which have survived in excellent condition to this day (for example, the Krak de Chevalier).

During the Second Crusade, the crusaders tried to conquer Damascus, but fled under the attack of Nur ad-Din's cavalry.

In October 1187 Salah ad-Din recaptures Jerusalem. But outraged Europe gathers new forces, and sends its army to the Third Crusade... This most famous campaign involves the King of England Richard I "the Lionheart", the Emperor of Germany Frederick I "Redbeard" (Barbarossa). But the mood among the crusaders was not as optimistic as a hundred years ago. Many of them went on this campaign only in order to earn a living for their families in a weak, devastated by internecine wars and plague Europe. When, like the Arab people, love and respect for their warrior-liberator Salah Ad-Din grew stronger, and many were ready to fight with honor under his command. Indeed, Salah Ad-Din justified such universal trust and reinforced his fame as an Honest, Fair, Courageous, Talented Warrior and leader, a skillful Diplomat. And his army easily conquered castle after castle. On September 1, 1191, a treaty, shameful for the crusaders, was signed between Salah ad-Din and Richard I, according to which a small strip of coastline from Tire to Jaffa remained for the Christians. The influence of the crusaders was weakening every year, in Europe they no longer believed in the Great Purpose, and the campaigns were not supported financially, the flow of recruits dried up, and the last armies of the crusaders, driven by the Arabs, left Syria in 1303, sailing to Cyprus.

Ottoman Empire.

In 1516, after the battle of Marj Dabik, Syria became a province of the Ottoman Empire. For four hundred years from 1516-1918. Turkish rule left a heavy mark on the life of Syria, its culture, led to the decline of its economy, the impoverishment of the population. In Damascus and Aleppo, Turkish pashas ruled. This position was simply bought in Constantinople, which led to a frequent change of rulers. Pasha held this position until someone at a higher price bought it. In such a short time, he used his power to the maximum for the purpose of quick and merciless profit. In Damascus alone, 133 governors have been replaced in 180 years. The Turkish sultan could not control all of his territories, so the pasha's power was practically unlimited. It was at this time that the crisis of the feudal economy intensified, and the people, crushed by unbearable taxes and growing foreign capital, rose to an armed struggle. Among the intelligentsia and the young national bourgeoisie of Syria, a political movement arose against Turkish oppression. Arab patriots advocated the creation of an independent Arab state.

During the First World War, the Arab population supported the Entente army on the Front Asian front. In September 1918, an anti-Turkish uprising broke out in southern Syria and the Turks were expelled from Syria.

Syrian troops entered Damascus under the command of Emir Faisal ibn Al-Hussein, who was proclaimed king of Syria in 1920. The Entente only in words supported Syria in its state self-determination. In fact, the European powers agreed on the division of the Turkish heritage. But because of the October Revolution in Russia, they did not dare to openly divide among themselves all the Arab countries in the Middle East and North Africa. But they came up with the idea of ​​extending the mandates of the League of Nations to them. In the same 1920, the king of Syria was forced to leave his country. Tunisia, Algeria, Syria and Lebanon were placed under the French mandate.

During French rule, due to the open market, as a result of which tens of thousands of local producers and artisans, unable to withstand competition with cheap mass imports, ruined tens of thousands of local producers and artisans, a country that was completely self-sufficient in food for millennia was forced to increase imports every year due to falling agricultural products. In this regard, a wave of armed uprisings swept across Syria. After the Syrian national uprising in 1925-1927. France changed its clearly colonial methods of government.

In 1924, the Syrian Communist Party is formed. In 1930, the country's first Constitution was promulgated, according to which Syria was proclaimed a republic, but remained under the mandate of the French government. The French allowed several local representatives of the bourgeoisie to rule. As a result of the mass uprising in 1936, an agreement was signed between the French government and the Syrian bourgeoisie, which provided for the abolition of the mandate and the proclamation of Syrian independence. But in 1919, the French parliament canceled this treaty, and with the outbreak of World War II and the Syrian constitution, and thus, Syria acted as a mandated territory of France. Since September 02, 1939, it has been a military zone. After the surrender of France to Hitlerite Germany, the territory of Syria came under the control of the German-Italian armistice commission. During this period, an anti-fascist movement emerged on the territory of Syria and Lebanon, which offered strong resistance. It was it that made it easier for the troops of England and France to expel the fascist agents from Syria and Lebanon. For this, Syria was promised independence. In 1944, France announced the end of the mandate and Syria was declared independent.

Syrian independence

On April 17, 1946, the last foreign troops were withdrawn from the country. This date is celebrated in Syria as the holiday "Evacuation Day".

In July 1944, at the request of the Syrian government, diplomatic relations were established with the USSR. Syria became a member of the UN, and in March 1945, Syria was one of the initiators of the creation of the League of Arab States. At the first stages of independence, Syria passed to the bloc of the propertied classes, while the influence of foreign capital was felt. The instability of political power, the growing activity of the democratic strata of the population, under the pressure of strong imperialist powers, the Communist Party was banned in Syria in 1946. During the period of the Shishekli regime (1951-1954), all constitutional freedoms were abolished and new laws were issued on the dissolution of political parties. Popular discontent grew more and more, the programs put forward reflected the demands of the population, which were also supported in the army, especially after the Palestinian tragedy in 1948-1949. On February 25, 1954, the National Opposition Front and army circles staged a military coup. In the aftermath of the coup, the constitution was restored, a number of freedoms were renewed, and the first parliamentary elections were held. At the end of 1956, the National Front was formed as part of the Communist Party - the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (BAAS). After that, the state bought out the tobacco monopoly, railways, power plants and utilities, revised agreements with oil companies in its favor.

In February 1958, an agreement was signed between Syria and Egypt, which provided for their unification into the United Arab Republic (UAR), which existed from February 1958 to September 1961. In the fall of 1961, bourgeois-landlord circles instigated a coup d'etat and Syria terminated the agreement with Egypt and began to bear the name of the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR). There was a state of emergency in the country - the denationalization of banks and industrial enterprises, a halt to the agrarian reform, and the peasants were expelled from the lands they had received.
In 1962, demonstrations of workers and students against the policy of denationalization took place in the country.
On March 8, 1963, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV), founded in 1947, began to exercise power in Syria.In February 1966, its left wing came to power, thanks to which a number of progressive social transformations were carried out aimed at undermining the positions of the bourgeois - landowners' circles and foreign capital, the position of the working masses was significantly improved.
In 1967, as a result of the military conflict between Syria and Israel, called the Six Day War, the Golan Heights was occupied by Israel. Seven years later, in 1973, Syria launched the Yom Kippur War with the aim of liberating the occupied territories, but was unsuccessful. According to the UN decision, the territory of the Golan Heights is a buffer between the two countries.

In May 1973, the interim constitution of Syria was replaced by the permanent one, the current one.

During the Iranian-Iraqi war 1980-1988. Syria supported Iran.
The central place in the state mechanism of Syria is occupied by the president of the republic, in fact endowed with decisive powers of power. His candidacy is nominated by the People's Council (parliament) at the suggestion of the regional leadership of the ruling party. From 1971 to June 10, 2000, Hafez Assad was president. Currently, the president of the SAR is the son of Hafez Assad - Bashar Assad.