A. Freud supplemented psychoanalytic teaching the concept of the integrity of the mental system ("I" as its center). In the doctrine of the mental structures of personality, she traces the formation of "It", "I" and "Super-I" of the child, studies the relationship of their influence on the psyche. The main merit of A. Freud in this area is the selection of the so-called genetic lines of development.

Developing and filling with specific psychological content the main provisions of classical psychoanalysis, A. Freud described in detail the regularities of the change in the phases of the normal development of the child.

She also reviewed a wide range of mental disorders- from "ordinary" difficulties of upbringing (fears, moods, sleep and appetite disturbances) to severe autistic disorders - and suggested practical methods of their treatment.

She highlighted several lines of individual development: from infantile addiction in childhood to love in adulthood, from selfishness to friendship, from breastfeeding to rational nutrition, etc. In her opinion, identifying the achieved level of development in each line, as well as taking into account the harmony between them, makes it possible to diagnose and give recommendations for solving practical issues: what age is most favorable for entering kindergarten and school, what is the optimal time for the appearance of the second child in the family, etc.

Anna Freud believed that a psychoanalyst working with children should set himself three additional tasks at once:

1. Convince a neurotic child that he is sick.

2. Win his trust over and over again.

3. Convincing the child to undergo treatment.

· An adult comes to a psychoanalyst because he is driven by suffering. He pays for the treatment, and this payment forces him to delve deeper into his problems. Finally, the adult goes to the psychoanalyst whom he trusts. The child is not yet able to compare himself with others, is not aware of the severity of his mental state, and it is unusual for him to reveal himself to a stranger. Therefore, Anna Freud did not consider it a waste of time to play with the child, to embroider, to knit in order to become "necessary" in his eyes.

Anna Freud originally used play as a way to establish contact with the child. But working with children who survived the bombing of London during World War II, she did amazing discovery... A child who had the opportunity to express his feelings in play freed himself from fears and did not develop neurosis. Anna Freud described in detail the differences in responses to the bombing of London between adults and children in Children and War (1944). The adults tended to share their feelings with the therapist over and over again, while the children were silent. Their reaction to the fear experienced was expressed by play: the child built houses from blocks, dropped imaginary bombs on the houses, the house burned, sirens howled, ambulances arrived, and the dead and wounded were taken to the hospital. Games like this could go on for several weeks ...

Already at the stage of gaining trust, you can learn a lot about the child by analyzing his fantasies, drawings and dreams, which the little patient tells about on their own... The only difficulty that not every psychoanalyst can handle is the child's inability to associate freely, because all psychoanalysis is based on the method of association. When trust has been won, Anna Freud recommends that you deal with the little patient with those of his actions, because of which he experiences constant anxiety. The purpose of such conversations is for the child to realize that many of his bad actions do him no good, but only harm him. The child should know that everything he tells the psychoanalyst about will remain a secret. The child's adult environment must come to terms with the fact that the psychoanalyst will take a significant place in the child's inner world for some time. The child and the psychoanalyst form a kind of alliance against problems.

· When an adult comes to a psychoanalyst, treatment begins with an analysis of the past. But the child has a past or not, or it is not great! It is pointless to refer to the memory of the baby. What to do? Firstly, maintain constant contact with the baby's family. Secondly, write down all the childhood memories of the little patient. Thirdly, pay special attention to dream analysis... Surprisingly, children understand the rules for interpreting dreams just as well as adults. As Anna Freud herself writes, the child "amuses himself with this study of individual elements of sleep, similar to playing with blocks, and is very proud when he succeeds ..." Many children know how not only to fantasize, but also to tell stories with sequels. “From such stories with a continuation, the doctor better understands internal state child, ”says Anna. Drawing is the richest field for the psychoanalyst's interpretations. The drawing symbolically reflects the anxiety of the baby, feelings for others, desires, dreams and ideals.

Psychoanalysis 3. Freud Main subject: Personal development
Research methods: Analysis of clinical cases,
free association method, dream analysis,
reservations, etc.
Basic concepts:
The levels of the psyche (consciousness, preconsciousness,
unconscious), personality structure (id, ego, superego), psychological defense, sexual energy
(libido), sexual instinct, life instinct,
death instinct, stages of psychosexual development,
erogenous zones, pleasure principle, principle
reality, Oedipus complex, Electra complex,
identification, conflict, residual behavior,
fixation, genital character

Mental development from the standpoint of classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud

The foundations of the psychoanalytic approach to understanding the development of the psyche in ontogenesis were laid by 3. Freud.

Mental development = process
complications of the sphere of drives,
motives and feelings, development
personality, its complication
structures and functions.

three levels of psyche
consciousness
unconscious
preconsciousness

The unconscious level of the psyche is a repository of the instinctive needs of the body, drives, primarily sexual and aggressive

Unconscious level of the psyche
- a repository of instinctive needs
organism, drives, in the first place
sexual and aggressive.
The unconscious initially opposes
society.
Personal development - adaptation (adaptation)
the individual to the external social world,
alien to him, but absolutely necessary.

Three structural components of personality
It
I
Super-I

Oh no (id)

primitive core of personality;
it has an innate character,
is in the unconscious and
obeys the principle
pleasure.
contains congenital
impulsive drives (instinct
life Eros and the death instinct
Thanatos) and is
energy base
mental development.

10. I (Ego)

- rational and in principle
conscious part
personality. arises as
biological maturation
between 12 and 36 months
life and is guided
the principle of reality.
The ego's job is to explain
happening and build
human behavior so
so that his instinctive
the requirements were
satisfied and
society restrictions and
consciousness would not be
violated.
With the assistance of the ego
conflict between an individual
and society throughout life
should weaken.
I (Ego)

11.Super x - I (Super - Ego)

Super-I
(Super - Ego)
as a structural component
personality is formed last,
between 3 and 6 years of age.
represents conscience, self-ideal and strictly controls
compliance with the norms adopted in
this society.

12.

The foundation of personality is being laid
experiences of early childhood, in
as a result of the conflict between the id and the superego

13. Periodization of age-related development 3. Freud - psychosexual theory of personality

Periodization of age
development of 3. Freud -
psychosexual
personality theory
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905):
a person is born with a certain amount
sexual energy (libido), which in
strictly defined sequence
moves in different areas of the body (mouth,
anus, genitals)

14. Stages are a kind of steps on the path of development, and there is a danger of "getting stuck" at one stage or another, and then the components of children's sex

Stages of personal development
oral
anal
phallic
latent
genital
Stages are their own
kind of steps on the way
development, and there is
danger of getting stuck
on one or another
stages, and then
children's components
sexuality can
become prerequisites
neurotic
symptoms
later life.

15. Oral stage (birth to 18 months)

Main source
pleasure connects
with satisfaction
main organic
needs and includes
actions related to
breastfeeding:
sucking, biting and
swallowing.
The mother awakens in the child
sexual attraction, teaches
to love him. Optimal
degree of satisfaction
(stimulation) in the oral
zone (chest
feeding, sucking)
lays the foundations
healthy self
adult personality.

16.

Too much parental affection
accelerates puberty and makes
child "spoiled", addicted.
Insufficient stimulation - adult
will use as ways
adapting to the surrounding world demonstration
helplessness, gullibility, will need
constant approval of their actions with
sides.

17.

Fixation in the oral-sadistic phase, with
teething when
the focus shifts to
biting and chewing actions,
leads to such traits
adult personality like
love of controversy, cynical consumer attitude towards
others, pessimism.
Attachment libido
to the oral area sometimes
persists in
an adult and gives about himself
know the residual
oral behavior - gluttony, smoking,
biting nails
chewing gum, etc.

18.Anal stage (from 1 - 1.5 to 3 years)

Associated with the emergence of the Ego
Anal erotica is associated, according to Freud, with pleasant
sensations from the work of the intestines, from excretory
functions, with an interest in their own feces.
At this stage, the parents begin to teach the child
use the toilet when first presenting it
the demand to abandon the instinctive
pleasure.
The correct educational approach is important (attention
to the state of the child, encouragement, support
neatness)

19. Phallic stage (3-6 years)

the child often considers and
examines his genitals,
shows interest in issues
associated with the appearance of children and
sexual relations.

20.

The Oedipus complex - y
boy
is discovered
desire to "possess"
mother and eliminate
father.
Identifying yourself with
father (imitation
intonations,
statements
actions
borrowing norms,
rules, settings)
promotes
the emergence of the Superego, or conscience,
last component
personality structures.
Complex Electra - u
girls identify themselves with
parent of the same gender
- mother and
suppression of gravity
to my father.
Girl magnifying
resemblance to mother,
gets
symbolic
"Access" to your
father.

21. Latent stage (from 6 to 7 years to 12 years)

Sexual calm, until
early adolescence.
The energy reserve is directed to
non-sexual goals and activities
- study, sports, knowledge,
friendship with peers, in
mostly of the same gender.
Freud emphasized
the meaning of this break in
sexual development
human as a condition for
development of higher
human culture.

22. Genital stage (12-18 years old)

Stage due to biological maturation in
puberty and the final psychosexual
development.
Inflow of sexual and aggressive urges, complex
Oedipa is reborn on a new level. Autoerotism
disappears, he is replaced by interest in another
a sexual object, a partner of the opposite sex.
Normally in youth there is a search for a place in society,
choosing a marriage partner, creating a family.
One of the most significant tasks of this stage is
liberation from parental authority, from attachment
to them, which provides the necessary for the cultural process
the opposite of the old and new generations.

23. Freud was convinced that all the most essential in the development of personality occurs before the age of five, and later a person is already only "functional

Thus, childhood interested 3. Freud
as a period that transforms an adult
personality.
Freud was convinced that the most essential
in personality development occurs before the age of five
age, and later the person is only
“Functioning”, trying to get rid of early
conflicts, therefore any special stages
he did not single out adulthood.

24. VALUE P s and ho and n a l and t and c o and c o n t e c i

Value psychoanalyst
technical concepts
It is a dynamic development concept,
it shows a complex scale
experiences, the unity of the soul
human life, its irreducibility to
individual functions and elements.
The importance of childhood, the importance and
longevity of parental
influence

25. The most important aspect of the psychoanalytic approach can be considered the idea of ​​sensitive attention to the child, the desire to discern outwardly ordinary e

The most important aspect of the psychoanalytic approach is
consider the idea of ​​sensitive attention to the child, the desire
to discern behind his outwardly ordinary words and actions
questions that really bother or embarrass him.
K.G. Jung remarks critically: “We must take
children as they are in
reality, we must stop seeing in
they are only what we would like to see in them,
while educating them, one must not conform to
dead rules, but with natural
direction of development "

26. Further development of the psychoanalytic direction in psychology is associated with the names of K. Jung, A. Adler, K. Horney, A. Freud, M. Klein, E. Erickson

Further development
psychoanalytic direction in
psychology is associated with the names of K. Jung,
A. Adler, K. Horney, A. Freud, M.
Klein, E. Erickson, B. Bettelheim, M.
Mahler and others.

27. A. Freud (1895-1982)

Her works:
"Introduction to children
psychoanalysis "(1927)
"Norm and pathology in
childhood "(1966) and others.

28. A. Freud believed that in the psychoanalysis of children:

You can and should use common
with adults analytical methods:
hypnosis, free association,
interpretation of dreams, symbols,
parapraxia (slip of the tongue, forgetting),
resistance analysis and transfer.
It is necessary to take into account the originality
analysis techniques for children

29. New technical methods

Analysis of transformations,
endured
passions
baby
(instead of upset - a cheerful mood,
instead of jealousy - excessive tenderness)
Analysis of animal phobias, features
school and family behavior of children
Analysis of children's play

30. In the psychoanalysis of a child, the external world exerts a much stronger influence on the mechanism of neurosis than in an adult. The outside world, it was brought up

In the psychoanalysis of a child, the external world renders
much stronger influence on the mechanism
neurosis than in an adult. The outside world, its
educational influences - powerful
the ally of the weak self of a child in the fight against
instinctive tendencies.

31. English psychoanalyst Melanie Klein (1882-1960)

32.

The focus was on
spontaneous play activity of the child
(specially created conditions:
the therapist provides the child with mass
small toys, “the whole world in
miniature "and gives him the opportunity
freely act for an hour).
The action is more typical of a child,
than speech
Observing different reactions
child, following the "stream of child's play" (and
especially for manifestations
aggressiveness or compassion) the main method of studying the structure
the experiences of the child.

33.

The game may show
various emotional
states: feelings of frustration and
rejection, jealousy of members
families and accompanying
aggressiveness, feelings of love, or
hatred for the newborn,
pleasure to play with a buddy,
opposition to parents,
feelings of anxiety, guilt and
the desire to correct the situation.
Regular speaking
child patient
interpretations of his behavior
helps him cope with
emerging difficulties and
conflicts.

34. Modern psychoanalysts about the development and education of children

35 J. Bowlby

Attachment theory: mother is not important
just because it satisfies
primary organic needs
the child, in particular, satisfies hunger, but
the main thing is that she creates the first
feeling of affection
Various disorders of the primary
emotional connection between mother and
child, "attachment disorder"
create a risk of personal
problems and mental illness
(for example, depressive conditions).

36.R. Spitz

The relationship between the child
and a mother at a very early age
have an impact on
the formation of his personality in
subsequent
Important concepts such as
"Affection", "safety",
establishing loved ones
relationships between children and adults,
creating conditions for establishing
interaction between children and parents
in the first hours after birth.

37. E. Fromm

Mother's love is unconditional:
a child is loved simply because
he is.
Fatherly love - for the most
parts of conditional love, her
need and can be earned

38. K. Buettner

Influence
video films,
cartoons, games,
the toy industry on
inner world children
is constantly growing and
often it can be
priced sharply
negatively

39. F. Dolto

"On the side of the child", "On the side
teenager ".
Challenges: the nature of the memories
childhood, the child's well-being in
kindergarten and school, attitude to
money and punishment, education
in an incomplete family, the norm and
parent-child pathology
relationship, in vitro conception.

40. Conclusion

Child psychoanalysis
influence on the organization of work with
children in educational and social
spheres, to work with parents.
numerous early
interventions, therapy options
relationship "parents -
child "," father - mother - child "for
parents and children of "risk groups"
psychoanalytic therapy centers
children.

41.

The presentation was prepared by
student of group 673 (2n)
Minkina Katya

Anna Freud - daughter of Sigmund Freud - continued and developed classical theory and the practice of psychoanalysis. After receiving a pedagogical education, she worked as a teacher in a school for the children of her father's patients and in 1923 began her own psychoanalytic practice. A. Freud is the author of many works on the laws of the child's development, on the difficulties that one has to face in his upbringing and education; about the nature and causes of violations of normal development and the ways of their compensation.

In the work "The Norm and Pathology of Childhood Development" (1965) A. Freud pointed out the origins of psychoanalytic interest in children. She wrote that after the publication of her father's book Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), many analysts began to observe their children and find confirmation of all the features of childhood development noted by Z. Freud: child sexuality, Oedipus and castration complexes. In this direction, in the 1920s and 1930s, the pedagogical faculty of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute trained kindergarten teachers and teachers. At the same time, well-known scientists - psychoanalysts (A. Ayhorn, S. Bernfeld and others) monitored street children and young offenders. During and after the Second World War, this research continued in specialized institutions, where the focus was on the observation of infants and young children without parents. R. Spitz, J. Bowlby, M. Ribble and others made a great contribution to the development of the psychoanalytic study of childhood. Theoretical ideas were developed by E. Crees and H. Hartmann.

Following the tradition of classical psychoanalysis, A. Freud divides the personality into its stable components: the unconscious or "It", "I", "Super-I". The instinctive part, in turn, is divided into sexual and aggressive components (psychoanalytic law of bipolarity). The development of the sexual instinct is determined, as in classical psychoanalysis, by the sequence of libidinal phases (oral, anal-sadistic, phallic, latent, prepubertal, pubertal). The corresponding phases of the development of aggressiveness are manifested in such types of behavior as biting, spitting, clinging (oral aggressiveness); destruction and cruelty (a manifestation of anal sadism); lust for power, boasting, conceit (at the phallic stage); dissocial beginnings (in prepubertal and pubertal). For the development of the instance of "I" A. Freud also outlines an approximate chronology of the development of defense mechanisms: repression, reactive formations, projections and transfers, sublimation, splitting, regressions, etc. Analyzing the development of the "Super-I", A. Freud describes identification with parents and interiorization of parental authority. Each phase of a child's development, according to A. Freud, is the result of resolving the conflict between internal instinctive drives and the restrictive requirements of the external social environment. A. Freud believes that, taking into account the phases, it is possible to build lines of development for an infinite number of spheres of children's life. The acknowledged merit of A. Freud is considered to be her description of the line of development of feeding from the infant stage to the rational eating habits of adults; lines of development of neatness from the initial educational program of an adult to automatic mastering of the functions of selection; lines of development of physical independence, attitudes towards elders, etc. Special attention in psychoanalysis is given to the line of development from infantile dependence to adult sexual life.

From the point of view of A. Freud, not only the identification of the level of development achieved along the corresponding line, but also the relationship between all the lines, make it possible to diagnose and give recommendations for solving practical issues of child education. At the same time, she emphasized, the discrepancy, disharmony between the various lines should not be regarded as a pathological phenomenon, since the mismatch in the rate of development observed in people from a very early age can only be variations within the normal range. The steps from immaturity to maturity, rather than chronological age, are seen by her as indicators of development. If growth occurs through progressive advancement to a higher level, then normal child development, according to A. Freud, goes in leaps, not gradually step by step, but back and forth with progressive and regressive processes in their constant alternation. In the course of their development, children take two steps forward and one backward.

In contrast to classical psychoanalysis, which studies primarily mental phenomena hidden from consciousness, A. Freud is one of the first in the children's psychoanalytic tradition to extend the basic provisions of Z. Freud to the sphere of consciousness, studying the "I" instance of the personality. A. Freud considers child development as a process of gradual socialization of the child, subject to the law of transition from the principle of pleasure to the principle of reality.

A newborn, in her opinion, knows only one law, namely, the principle of pleasure, to which all its manifestations are blindly subordinated. However, for the fulfillment of such bodily needs of the child as hunger, sleep, temperature regulation, the infant is completely left to the adult caring for him. And if the search for pleasure is the "inner principle" of the child, then the satisfaction of desires depends on the external world.

The mother fulfills or rejects the child's wishes and through this role becomes not only the first object of love, but also the first legislator for the child. According to A. Freud, the fact that the mood of the mother has a decisive influence on the child belongs to the earliest achievements of psychoanalysis, that is, the fundamental conclusions of studies of adult patients. Observations of children again confirm that the mother's individual preferences and antipathies have a significant impact on the development of the child. "The fastest developing is what the mother likes most and what she most vivaciously welcomes; the development process slows down where she remains indifferent or hides her approval," A. Freud notes.

Despite the helplessness, the child very early manages to learn to show a certain relationship to the mother. Already at this early age, one can distinguish between obedient, "good", easily controlled children, and intolerant, headstrong, "heavy" children who violently protest against every restriction demanded of them.

The more independent the child becomes in relation to food, sleep, etc., A. Freud believes, the more bodily needs recede into the background, giving way to new instinctive desires. The child strives for their satisfaction with the same zeal as before striving for satiety with a feeling of hunger. Once again, he is faced with the limitations that the outside world imposes on him. The child, naturally, seeks to fulfill his instinctive goals without delay, without taking into account external circumstances, but this can become dangerous for his life, therefore, an adult, whether he wants it or not, is forced to restrict the child. As a result of this discrepancy between the internal and the external, the desire for pleasure and taking into account reality, all children of this age, in the words of A. Freud, are "entangled" in the constant difficulties of the external world and, naturally, disobedient, impolite and stubborn.

According to A. Freud, a child's chances to remain mentally healthy largely depend on how much his "I" is able to endure hardships, that is, overcome displeasure. For some children, any delay or any limitation of the satisfaction of desires is completely unbearable. They respond with reactions of anger, rage, impatience; nothing can satisfy them, any substitutions are rejected by them as insufficient. In other children, the same limitations do not cause such resentment. It is interesting that such attitudes, arising very early, persist for many years. A. Freud characterizes the child as immature as long as instinctive desires and their realization are divided between him and his environment in such a way that desires remain on the child's side, and the decision to satisfy or refuse them is on the side of the external world. From this moral dependence, which is quite normal for childhood, a long and hard way development to a normal adult state, when a mature person, becoming a "judge in his own business," is able to control his intentions, subject them to a judicious analysis and independently decide whether a particular urge needs to be rejected, postponed or turned into action. This moral independence is the result of numerous internal conflicts.

In early childhood, the pleasure principle dominates without internal resistance. In older children, he still owns such aspects of the psyche as the unconscious and, in part, the conscious life of fantasies, dreams, etc. Anyone who is under the rule of the pleasure principle is guided in his actions solely by his desire to satisfy desires. Only the principle of reality creates, according to A. Freud, a space for postponement, delay and consideration of the social environment and its requirements. On this basis, it can be assumed that the principle of pleasure and desocial, or asocial behavior are intertwined as closely as the principle of reality and the socialization that took place. But all this is not as simple as it seems at first glance.

A. Ayhorn was the first to notice that street children and young criminals can achieve a high degree of development of the reality principle without using it for socialization. The transition from the pleasure principle to the reality principle is only a precondition for the socialization of the individual. Advancement towards the reality principle does not in itself provide any assurance that the individual will follow social requirements.

According to A. Freud, almost all normal elements of a child's life, especially such as greed, self-interest, jealousy, the wish for death, push the child in the direction of desociality. Socialization is a defense against them. Some instinctive desires are repressed from consciousness, others pass into their opposite (reactionary formations), are directed to other goals (sublimation), shift from their own person to another (projection), etc. From A. Freud's point of view, there is no internal contradiction between developmental and defense processes. The real contradictions lie deeper - they are between the desires of the individual and his position in society, therefore, the smooth course of the process of socialization is impossible. The organization of the protective process is an important and necessary component of the development of the "I".

The child's progress from the pleasure principle to the reality principle cannot come before various functions The "I" will reach certain stages of development. Only after the memory begins to function, the child's actions can be carried out on the basis of experience and foresight. Without control of reality, there is no distinction between inner and outer, fantasy and reality. Only the acquisition of speech makes the child a member of human society. Logic, reasonable thinking contribute to understanding the relationship of cause and effect, and adaptation to the requirements of the surrounding world ceases to be a simple submission - it becomes conscious and adequate.

The formation of the principle of reality, on the one hand, and thought processes, on the other, opens the way for new mechanisms of socialization, such as imitation, identification, introjection, which contribute to the formation of the "Super-I" instance. The formation of an effective "Super-I" means a decisive progress in socialization for the child. The child is now able not only to obey the moral requirements of his social environment, but "he himself takes part in them and can feel like their representative." However, this internal instance is still very weak and for many years needs support and support from an authoritative person (parents, teacher) and can easily collapse due to strong feelings and disappointment in him.

Imitation, identification, introjection are necessary preconditions for the subsequent entry into the social community of adults. Further, new steps should be taken "outward": from family to school, from school to public life. And each of these steps is accompanied by the rejection of personal advantages, from the "individually-attentive" attitude towards oneself. So, within the classroom, there is the same order for all students, although they as individuals differ from each other. IN public life all people are equal before the law. “Laws are tough and impersonal, and their violation leads to legal sanctions, regardless of what sacrifice for the individual means their application, facilitates or complicates this sacrifice by his character and intellectual level,” A. Freud emphasizes. However, a normal person is not required to know all the social rules, accept them and make them his own; With the exception of fundamental rules morality is expected of him to recognize the necessity of law and law and, in principle, to be ready to obey them. Compared to the norm, the criminal is like a child who ignores the authority of the parents. There are also people whose moral requirements for themselves are stricter and higher than the world around them expects. Their ideals come from identification not with real parents, but with an idealized image of a parent. As A. Freud notes, such people behave self-confidently and are morally superior to their neighbors.

According to the deep conviction of A. Freud, about which she repeatedly declares, inharmonious personal development is based on many reasons. This is uneven progress along the lines of development, and unevenly lasting regressions, and the peculiarities of the isolation of internal instances from each other, and the formation of connections between them, and much more. "Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that individual differences between people are so great, deviations from the straight line of development go so far and the definitions of a strict norm are so unsatisfactory. The constant mutual influences of progress and regression bring with them countless variations in the framework of normal development," A. Freud.

Once upon a time when asked that normal person must be able to do well, S. Freud replied: "To love and work." Later, as if arguing with her father, A. Freud tried to answer the question of what childhood achievement deserves the title of vital. She wrote: “Play, learning, free fantasy, warmth of object relations are all important to the child. However, in their meaning they cannot be compared with such fundamental concepts as“ the ability to love ”and“ to work. ”I return to an earlier hypothesis ( 1945), when I assert that only one ability in a child's life deserves this position, namely the ability to develop normally, go through the steps prescribed according to the plan, form all aspects of the personality and fulfill the requirements of the external world accordingly. "



Childhood psychoanalysis

Attempts to organize analytical work with children from the standpoint of traditional psychoanalysis ran into real difficulties: children did not show interest in researching their past, there was no initiative to turn to a psychoanalyst, and the level of verbal development was insufficient to formulate their experiences in words. At first, psychoanalysts mainly used parental observations and reports as material for interpretation.

Later, methods of psychoanalysis were developed, aimed specifically at children. Freud's followers in the field of child psychoanalysis A. Freud and M. Klein created their own, differing versions of child psychotherapy.

A. Freud (1895-1982) adhered to the traditional psychoanalysis position about the child's conflict with full of contradictions social world... Her works "Introduction to Child Psychoanalysis" (1927), "Norm and Pathology in Childhood" (1966), and others laid the foundations of child psychoanalysis. She emphasized that in order to understand the causes of difficulties in behavior, the psychologist must strive to penetrate not only into the unconscious layers of the child's psyche, but also to obtain the most detailed knowledge about all three components of the personality (I, It, Super-I), about their relationship with the outside world, about the mechanisms of psychological defense and their role in personality development.

A. Freud believed that in the psychoanalysis of children, firstly, it is possible and necessary to use analytical methods common with adults on speech material: hypnosis, free associations, interpretation of dreams, symbols, parapraxias (slips of the tongue, forgetting), analysis of resistances and transference. Secondly, she also pointed to the peculiarity of the technique of analyzing children. The difficulties of using the method of free associations, especially in young children, can be partially overcome by analyzing dreams, waking dreams, dreams, games and drawings, which will reveal the tendencies of the unconscious in an open and accessible form. A. Freud proposed new technical methods to help in the study of I. One of them is the analysis of the transformations undergone by the child's affects. In her opinion, the discrepancy between the expected (from past experience) and demonstrated (instead of upset - a cheerful mood, instead of jealousy - excessive tenderness) emotional reaction of the child indicates that protective mechanisms are working, and thus it becomes possible to penetrate into the child's I. The analysis of animal phobias, the characteristics of school and intrafamily behavior of children presents a rich material on the formation of protective mechanisms at specific phases of child development. Thus, A. Freud attached great importance to children's play, believing that, being carried away by play, the child will also be interested in the interpretations offered to him by the analyst regarding the protective mechanisms and unconscious emotions hidden behind them.

The psychoanalyst, according to A. Freud, must have authority with the child for success in child therapy, since the child's superego is relatively weak and unable to cope with the motives released as a result of psychotherapy without outside help. The nature of the child's communication with the adult is of particular importance: “Whatever we start to do with the child, whether we teach him arithmetic or geography, whether we educate him or subject him to analysis, we must, first of all, establish certain emotional relationships between ourselves and the child. The more difficult the work that lies ahead of us, the stronger this connection should be, ”A. Freud emphasized. When organizing research and correctional work with difficult children (aggressive, anxious), the main efforts should be aimed at forming attachment, developing libido, and not at directly overcoming negative reactions. The influence of adults, which gives the child, on the one hand, hope for love, and on the other hand, makes him fear punishment, allows him to develop his own ability to control his inner instinctive life over the course of several years. In this case, part of the achievements belongs to the forces of the child's I, and the rest - to the pressure of external forces; it is impossible to determine the ratio of influences. In psychoanalysis of a child, A. Freud emphasizes, the external world exerts a much stronger influence on the mechanism of neurosis than in an adult. The child psychoanalyst must necessarily work to transform the environment. The outside world, its educational influences, is a powerful ally of the child's weak self in the struggle against instinctive tendencies.

The English psychoanalyst M. Klein (1882-1960) developed her own approach to the organization of psychoanalysis at an early age.

The main attention was paid to the child's spontaneous play activity. M. Klein, in contrast to A. Freud, insisted on the possibility of direct access to the content of the child's unconscious. She believed that action is more characteristic of a child than speech, and free play is the equivalent of an adult's flow of associations; stages of play are analogs of the associative production of an adult.

Psychoanalysis with children, according to Klein, was based mainly on spontaneous children's play, which was helped by specially created conditions. The therapist provides the child with a lot of small toys, "the whole world in miniature" and gives him the opportunity to act freely for an hour. The most suitable for psychoanalytic play techniques are simple non-mechanical toys: wooden male and female figurines of different sizes, animals, houses, hedges, trees, various vehicles, cubes, balls and sets of balls, plasticine, paper, scissors, a mild knife, pencils, crayons , paints, glue and rope. The variety, number, miniature sizes of toys allow the child to widely express their fantasies and use the existing experience conflict situations... The simplicity of toys and human figures ensures that they can be easily incorporated into plot moves that are fictional or suggested by the child's real experience. The playroom should also be equipped quite simply, but provide maximum freedom of action. It requires a table, several chairs, a small sofa, several pillows, a washable floor, running water and a chest of drawers for play therapy. Each child's play materials are stored separately, locked in a specific box. This condition is intended to convince the child that his toys and play with them will be known only to himself and the psychoanalyst. Observing the various reactions of the child, the "flow of child's play" (and especially the manifestations of aggressiveness or compassion) is becoming the main method for studying the structure of the child's experiences. The uninterrupted course of the game corresponds to the free flow of associations; interruptions and inhibitions in games are equivalent to interruptions in free association. A break in play is seen as a defensive action on the part of the self, comparable to resistance in free association.

A variety of emotional states can manifest in play: feelings of frustration and rejection, jealousy of family members and concomitant aggression, feelings of love or hate for a newborn, pleasure to play with a friend, confrontation with parents, feelings of anxiety, guilt, and a desire to fix the situation.

A prior knowledge of the child's developmental history and the symptoms and impairments he or she may have will assist the therapist in interpreting the meaning of the child's play. As a rule, the psychoanalyst tries to explain to the child the unconscious roots of his play, for which he has to show great ingenuity in order to help the child realize which of the real members of his family the figures used in the game represent. At the same time, the psychoanalyst does not insist that the interpretation accurately reflects the experienced psychic reality, it is rather a metaphorical explanation or an interpretive sentence put forward for trial. The child begins to realize that there is something unknown (“unconscious”) in his own head and that the analyst is also involved in his play. M. Klein gives detailed description details of psychoanalytic play techniques using specific examples. Thus, at the request of her parents, M. Klein conducted psychotherapeutic treatment of a seven-year-old girl with normal intelligence, but with a negative attitude to school and not successful in her studies, with some neurotic disorders and poor contact with her mother. The girl did not want to draw and actively communicate in the therapist's office. However, when she was presented with a set of toys, she began to replay her worried relationship with her classmate. It was they who became the subject of the psychoanalyst's interpretation. After hearing the therapist's interpretation of her game, the girl began to trust him more. Gradually, with further treatment, her relationship with her mother and her school situation improved.

Sometimes the child refuses to accept the therapist's interpretation and may even stop playing and discard toys when he hears that his aggression is directed at his father or brother. Such reactions, in turn, also become the subject of interpretation by the psychoanalyst.

Changes in the nature of the child's play can directly confirm the correctness of the proposed interpretation of the game. For example, a child finds in a toy box a stained figurine that symbolized his younger brother in a previous game and washes it in a basin from the traces of his previous aggressive intentions. So, penetration into the depths of the unconscious, according to M. Klein, is possible with the use of play techniques, through the analysis of anxiety and defense mechanisms of the child. Regularly telling the child-patient interpretations of his behavior helps him to cope with the difficulties and conflicts that arise. Some psychologists believe that playing is healing in and of itself. So, D.V. Winnicott emphasizes the creative power of free play versus game. Cognition of the child's psyche through psychoanalysis and play techniques expanded the understanding of the emotional life of young children, deepened the understanding of the earliest stages of development and their long-term contribution to the normal or pathological development of the psyche in adult life. Children's psychoanalyst J. Bowlby considered, first of all, the emotional development of children. His attachment theory is based on a synthesis of modern biological (ethological) and psychological data and traditional psychoanalytic ideas about development.

The key idea of ​​Bowlby's theory is that the mother is important not only because she satisfies the child's primary organic needs, in particular, satisfies hunger, but most importantly, she creates the child's first feeling of attachment. In the first months of life, the screams and smiles of the child guarantee him maternal care, external safety and security. An emotionally protected child is more effective in his exploratory behavior, paths of healthy mental development are open to him.

Various disorders of the primary emotional connection between mother and child, “attachment disorders”, pose the risk of personality problems and mental illness (eg, depression). Bowlby's ideas found application immediately and starting in the 1950s. led to a practical reorganization of the hospital regime for young children, which made it possible not to separate the child from the mother. R. Spitz emphasizes that the relationship between the child and the mother at a very early age has an impact on the formation of his personality in the future3. Very indicative of a psychoanalytic approach to research and developmental correction

in childhood, there are such concepts as "attachment", "safety", the establishment of close relationships between children and adults, the creation of conditions for the establishment of interaction between children and parents in the first hours after birth.

The position of E. Fromm on the role of mother and father in raising children, on the peculiarities of maternal and paternal love was widely known. Mother's love is unconditional: the child is loved simply for what he is. The mother herself must have faith in life, not be anxious, only then will she be able to convey to the child a sense of security. "Ideally, maternal love is not trying to stop the child from growing up, not trying to assign a reward for helplessness." Father's love is for the most part conditioned love, it is necessary and, importantly, it can be earned - by achievements, fulfilling duties, order in affairs, meeting expectations, discipline. A mature person builds images of parents within himself: "In this development from mother-centered to father-centered attachment and their final synthesis is the basis of spiritual health and maturity." Representative of psychoanalytic pedagogy K. Buttner draws attention to the fact that the sphere of family education, traditional for psychoanalysis, is supplemented and even enters into competitive, contradictory relations with the system of institutional, non-family education. The influence of videos, cartoons, games, the toy industry on the inner world of children is constantly growing, and often it can be assessed as sharply negative. F. Dolto, a representative of the Paris School of Freudianism, examines the passage of symbolic stages of personality formation by children5. In her books "On the side of the child", "On the side of the adolescent" she analyzes numerous problems from a psychoanalytic point of view: the nature of childhood memories, the child's well-being in kindergarten and school, the attitude to money and punishment, education in an incomplete family, the norm and pathology of parenting. - child relationships, in vitro conception. Child psychoanalysis has had a significant impact on the organization of work with children in the educational and social spheres, on work with parents. On its basis, numerous early intervention programs have been created, options for therapy of the relationship "parent - child", "father - mother - child" for parents and children of "risk groups". Currently, there are many centers for psychoanalytic therapy for children. However, according to one of the prominent representatives of this trend S. Lebowici, “to this day it is not easy to determine with precision what exactly is psychoanalysis in a child” 2. The goals of modern long-term psycho-analytical therapy of a child are formulated in a very wide range: from eliminating neurotic symptoms, alleviating the burden of anxiety, improving behavior to changes in the organization of mental activity or the resumption of the dynamic evolution of mental development processes.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-TEST:

1. Name the motives underlying human behavior according to 3. Freud.

2. Describe the structure of personality and its development in the process of ontogenesis. What are the prerequisites for the emergence of a person's internal conflict?

3. Why can psychoanalysis's approach to understanding mental development be characterized as preformist?

4. Using the Freudian model of psychosexual development, try to explain the behavior of an overly punctual and tidy person; prone to swearing and bragging; a person who constantly strives to evoke sympathy and self-pity.

5. How the psychoanalytic approach was transformed into child psychoanalysis(goals, methods, ways of correction)?

EXERCISE 1

Read an excerpt from the work of 3. Freud "On Psychoanalysis", highlight in the text specific concepts for psychoanalysis, key provisions characteristic of this approach, paying attention to their formulations. “The relationship of a child to his parents is far from free from sexual arousal, as direct observations of children and later psychoanalytic research in adults show. The child considers both parents, especially one of them, as the object of his erotic desires. Usually the child follows in this case the promptings of the parents, whose tenderness has very clear, albeit restrained in relation to its purpose, manifestations of sexual feelings. The father, as a rule, prefers the daughter, the mother over the son; the child reacts to this by wanting to be in the father's place if it is a boy, and in the mother's place if it is a girl. Feelings arising in this case between parents and children, as well as depending on the latter between brothers and sisters, are not only positive, tender, but also negative, hostile. The complex that arises on this basis is predetermined for imminent repression, but nevertheless it produces from the side of the unconscious a very important and long-term action... We can

suggest that this complex with its derivatives is the basic complex of any neurosis, and we must be prepared to meet it no less valid in other areas of mental life. The myth of King Oedipus, who kills his father and marries his mother, is a little changed manifestation of infantile desire, against which the idea of ​​incest subsequently arises. Shakespeare's creation of Hamlet is based on the same incest complex, only better hidden. At a time when the child is in possession of a basic complex that has not yet been repressed, a significant part of his intellectual interests is devoted to sexual issues. He begins to ponder where the children are from, and learns from the signs available to him about actual facts more than the parents think. Usually, interest in childbearing issues is manifested as a result of the birth of a brother or sister. This interest depends solely on the fear of material damage, since the child sees only a competitor in the newborn. Under the influence of those partial drives that distinguish the child, he creates several infantile sexual theories in which the same genitals are attributed to both sexes, conception occurs as a result of food intake, and birth - by emptying through the end of the intestine; The child considers copulation as a kind of hostile act, as violence. But it is precisely the incompleteness of his own sexual constitution and the gap in his information, which consists in ignorance of the existence of the female genital canal, that makes the child-researcher stop his unsuccessful work. The very fact of this child's research, as well as the creation of various theories, leaves its mark on the formation of the child's character and gives content to his future neurotic illness.

It is completely inevitable and completely normal that a child chooses his parents as the object of his first love choice. But his libido must not fixate on these first objects, but, taking these first objects as a model, must pass during the final selection of the object to other persons. Splitting a child from his parents should be an inevitable task so that the child's social position is not threatened. At a time when repression leads to a choice among partial drives, and subsequently, when the influence of parents must diminish, great tasks lie ahead of the task of education. This upbringing, undoubtedly, is not always carried out as it should at the present time. Do not think that by this analysis of the sexual life and psychosexual development of the child, we have withdrawn from psychoanalysis and from the treatment of neurotic disorders. If you want, psychoanalytic treatment can be defined as a continuation of education in the sense of eliminating the remnants of childhood ”(Freud 3. On psychoanalysis // Psychology of the unconscious: Collection of works / Compiled by MG Yaroshevsky. M., 1990. S. 375).

ASSIGNMENT 2

Look through books, periodicals on psychology of recent years, select the work of a foreign or domestic psychologist, the author of which is an adherent of the psychoanalytic approach.

Read, paying attention to the conceptual apparatus.

What aspects of mental and personal development does the author consider

the main ones?

Indicate those practical problems of mental development, education and upbringing that are proposed to be solved in the context of psychoanalytic theory.

Give your own example of a current practical situation of this type.

What do you consider valuable from what you read, what seemed new, what is dubious or incomprehensible?

Prepare a thesis report.

Additional literature:

1.Zesharnik B.V. Personality theories in foreign psychology. M., 1982.S. 6-12, 30-37.

2. Obukhov Ya.A. The significance of the first year of life for the subsequent development of the child:

(Review of D. Winnicott's concept) // School of Health. 1997. T. 4. No. 1. S. 24-39.

3. Fromm E. Psychoanalysis and ethics. M., 1993.

4. Yaroshevsky M.G. History of Psychology. M., 1985.S. 329-345, 377-397.

Sigmund Freud believed that psychoanalysis is contraindicated for stupid or narcissistic people, psychopaths and perverts, and success can only be achieved with those who understand what morality is and seek to heal themselves. As the French researcher Elisabeth Rudinesco writes, if you take his statements literally, it turns out that such treatment is suitable only for "educated people who are able to dream and fantasize." But in practice, the patients he received at his home on Berggasse in Vienna did not always meet these criteria. T&P is publishing an excerpt from the book Sigmund Freud in His Time and Ours, which was published by Kuchkovo Pole Publishing House.

It is known that the patients who were accepted by Freud as "sick" before and after 1914 came to him for treatment to one degree or another under duress: these are all the women mentioned in Etudes on Hysteria, these are Ida Bauer, Margarita Chonka and many others. Under these conditions, the likelihood that the treatment would be "successful" was small, especially when it came to young ladies who rebelled against the established order in the family, in their eyes Freud appeared to be a lustful doctor or an accomplice of parents. Conversely, patients who came to Berggasse for analysis of their own free will were generally satisfied. Hence the paradox: the more the treatment depended on the patient's free desire, proceeded from himself, the more successful it was. And Freud concluded from this that the patient must fully accept all conditions, otherwise no psychoanalytic experience is possible. It is necessary to clarify that if the analysand wanted to become an analyst himself, then the treatment had much more chances to become therapeutic, then scientific, because the patient was directly involved in the matter itself. As a result, and without exception, the treatment, which was completely completed, that is, from the point of view of the person who turned to Freud, the most satisfactory - it was such a treatment that, on the one hand, was voluntary, on the other, it involved the patient's most active participation *.

* This is precisely because psychoanalysts did not want to compare their cases with those that Freud did not tell about, and they could not give a real assessment of his practice. All other mixed trends - supporters of Klein, Lacan, post-Lacanists, Ferencists, etc. - were satisfied with commenting; such is the canonical corpus, the story of Anna O. and the "cases" cited in the "Studies of Hysteria", as well as in the famous "Five Cases", of which only three can be regarded as treatment. Thus, there was a free field for anti-Freudians, who used it to make Freud a charlatan, unable to cure anyone. The reality is much more complicated, and we have seen it.

Freud's patients were overwhelmingly Jewish, suffering from neuroses in the broadest sense of the word, which was attributed to him in the first half of the century: neuroses, sometimes mild, but often serious, which later would be called borderline states and even psychoses. A considerable number of patients belonged to the intellectual circles, often they were famous people - musicians, writers, creative people, doctors, etc. They wanted not only to be treated, but to experience what the word treatment is, which is conducted by its creator himself. At Berggasse, they mainly turned, having already visited other luminaries of the medical world of Europe - psychiatrists or specialists in all types of nervous diseases. And, no matter what they say, until 1914 they all faced the same notorious "therapeutic nihilism" so characteristic of the mental medicine of this era.

An enormous success in psychoanalysis was achieved by Freud's development of a system of interpretations of the affects of the soul, based on an extensive narrative epic, which was more involved in deciphering riddles than psychiatric nosography. On the couch of this original scientist, who also suffered from bodily ailments, surrounded by a luxurious collection of objects, touchingly beautiful dogs, everyone could feel like a hero of some theatrical stage, where princes and princesses, prophets, overthrown kings and helpless queens masterfully play their role. Freud told fairy tales, summarized novels, recited poetry, and revived myths. Jewish stories, anecdotes, stories about sexual desires hidden in the depths of the soul - all this, in his eyes, was perfect for giving modern man a mythology that would reveal to him the splendor of the origins of humanity. In technical terms, Freud justified this position, arguing that correctly conducted, that is, successful, analysis aims to convince the patient to accept the authenticity of a certain scientific construct simply because the ultimate advantage is simply to reclaim the acquired memory. In other words, successful treatment is the kind of treatment that will allow you to understand the root cause of suffering and failure, to rise above them in order to fulfill your desires.

Freud saw eight patients a day, his sessions lasting 50 minutes, six times a week, sometimes for many weeks or even months. It happened that the treatment was delayed indefinitely, there were repetitions and failures. In addition, Freud received other patients for routine consultations, prescribed treatment, and conducted several sessions of psychotherapy. Usually he did not make any notes, doing the "art of sofa". It was an introduction to the journey: Dante leads Virgil, as in the "Divine Comedy". If he recommended abstinence, then he never followed any principles of "neutrality", preferring "indecisive attention", which allowed the unconscious to act. He spoke, intervened, clarified, interpreted, got confused and smoked cigars without suggesting to patients what they reacted to in different ways. Finally, if an occasion arose, he recalled some details from his own life, mentioned tastes, political preferences, convictions. In a word, he himself was involved in the treatment, confident that he would overcome the most stubborn resistance. When this did not succeed, he always tried to understand why, while there was still hope for success. Sometimes he admitted tactlessness, informing his correspondents about what happened during the sessions that he conducted, and sometimes he read to some patients the letters he received, where they were discussed, while all this was supposed to remain confidential.

* The mathematician Henri Roudier calculated for me what was the state of Freud at different stages of his life. Before the First World War - in florins and crowns, then, since 1924 - in shillings and dollars. Note that all the "monetary conversions" proposed in order to determine the price of Freud's sessions and translate it into euros or dollars of the XXI century, have no scientific basis, and the authors, among other things, contradict each other: in some it turns out 450 euros, for others - 1000, for others - 1300. Such calculations should by no means be taken seriously, they pursue the goal of presenting Freud as a fraud or greedy person. One can speak of his condition only by comparing him with other contemporaries who did the same thing as he did and came out of the same social class. Of course, Freud got rich when you consider that at the same age his father lived in relative poverty.

Freud, day after day, summed up the accounts, kept notes in a special diary (Kassa-Protokoll) and in his letters talked endlessly about money. Between 1900 and 1914, his social status was equal to that of prominent professors of medicine, who, meanwhile, received patients in private. * He was wealthy enough, like all more or less prominent practitioners of his generation, and led the same lifestyle.

During the war, revenues collapsed - at the same time as the Austrian economy. But since 1920, he gradually recovered his fortune, accepting patients not only from the former European powers, devastated by the financial crisis and the depreciation of money, but also other psychiatrists or wealthy foreign intellectuals who came from the United States or wished to study psychoanalysis. Freud gradually became an analyst for analysts.

Whenever possible, he asked to pay for treatment in foreign currency. Over the years, he managed to place his savings abroad, to which were added quite significant amounts for copyright. If he earned less than a psychoanalyst living in New York or London, he was definitely better off than the German, Hungarian and Austrian followers, who were struggling with the collapse of the economy. In October 1921, inviting Lou Andreas-Salomé to come to Vienna because she had expressed such a desire, he wrote: “If you are breaking with your homeland because freedom of movement is being encroached on in the country, let me send you money to Hamburg. necessary for the trip. My son-in-law manages my investments in stamps there, as well as income in hard foreign money (American, British, Swiss), I became relatively wealthy. And I would not mind if wealth gives me some pleasure. "

* At the same time in New York, the price per session was $ 50. Here are the notes of the economist Thomas Piketty on Freud's income, calculated at my request: “Freud was a successful doctor, which was not scandalous, given the very high level of inequality that characterized that time. The average income was between 1200 and 1300 gold francs per year per inhabitant. Today, the average income (excluding taxes) is around € 25,000 per year per adult. To compare the totals, it would be better to multiply the amounts in gold francs from 1900-1910 by a coefficient of about 20. Christfried Tögel credits Freud with an income of about 25,000 florins, which corresponds to 500,000 euros of annual income today. This, of course, is a fairly high profit, but also quite indicative for the highest level of the era. With constant inequality, this would correspond rather to about 250,000 euros of annual income today. "

For comparison, note that in 1896 Freud charged 10 florins per hour; in 1910 - from 10 to 20 kroons per session; in 1919 - 200 crowns, or $ 5 if the patient is an American (which is equal to 750 crowns), or a guinea, which is a little more than one livre sterling (600 crowns), if the patient is a poor Englishman. Finally, in 1921, he considered asking for 500 to 1,000 crowns, then settled on $ 25 * per hour, which did not prevent some patients from charging less overpriced amounts.

At times, he could not contain unfair and harsh anti-American sentiments, to the extent that he argued, for example, that his followers across the Atlantic were good only because they brought him dollars. Just one interlocutor, he frightened by saying that the Statue of Liberty can be replaced with another, which "holds the Bible in his hand." The next day, during the analysis, one of the students said that Americans are so stupid that their whole way of thinking can be reduced to a ridiculous syllogism: "Garlic is good, chocolate is good, put some garlic in chocolate and eat it!"

The fall of the Central European empires and the gradual predominance of American psychoanalysts in the international movement was experienced by Freud as a deep humiliation. He was tormented that all patients were forced to pay, and he was sympathetic to the idea that medical institutions should provide free care to the poor. The American idea of ​​democracy, personal freedom and the rights of peoples to self-determination in general terrified him. “Americans,” he once said to Sandor Rado, “are transferring democratic principles from politics to science. All should be presidents in turn. But they cannot do something. "

Freud always believed that psychoanalytic treatment is contraindicated for people who are stupid, uneducated, too old, melancholic, obsessively obsessed, suffering from anorexia or hysteria, albeit occasionally. He also ruled out psychoanalytic experimentation for psychopaths or perverts "unwilling to come to terms with themselves." Since 1915, he has added to the category of "unanalyzed" those who are prone to serious narcissistic disorder, obsessed with the death drive, chronic destruction and not amenable to sublimation. Later, when Ferenczi invited him to undergo an analysis, he joked that he was talking about a man who is under seventy, who smokes, who has a cancer, nothing will help him. Freud also said the opposite - that psychoanalysis is intended to treat hysteria, neuroses associated with obsessive persecution, phobias, anxiety, depression, sexual disorders. And he added that success can only be achieved with smart people, who understand what morality is, and who want to be treated.

“Maniacs, psychopaths, melancholic people, narcissists also consulted other specialists who, like Freud, did not achieve successful results. But only Freud was accused both during life and after death "

In 1928, he quite clearly stated to the Hungarian follower Istvan Hollos, the initiator of the reform of psychiatric hospitals, that he hated patients with psychotic disorders. “I was finally convinced that I do not like these patients, they anger me because they are not like me, like anything that could be called human. This is a strange sort of intolerance that makes me completely unsuitable for psychiatry. I act in this case, like other doctors before us, in relation to patients with hysteria, is it not the result of the partiality of the intellect, which always manifests itself much more clearly, an expression of hostility towards “It "?"

Taking these statements literally, one can decide by believing the founder that psychoanalysis is suitable only for educated people who are able to dream or fantasize, who are aware of their condition, who care about improving their own well-being, with morality beyond any suspicion, who, by virtue of a positive transfer or antitransfer, are capable of curing for several weeks or months. Well, we know that most of the patients who came to Berggasse did not fit this profile.

* As an example, it can be noted that the Viennese architect Karl Meireder (1856-1935), whom Freud treated for ten weeks for chronic melancholy in 1915, set a kind of record by contacting fifty-nine doctors, whose prescriptions and other methods of treatment turned out to be completely ineffective. But only Freud was accused of not curing him.

In other words, since the turn of the century, there has been a great deal of contradiction between the guidelines for treatment that Freud advocated in his articles and his own practice. Realizing this, he corrected his theory, describing in "Introduction to Narcissism" and in "Beyond the Pleasure Principle" cases, the therapeutic success of which he doubted in every possible way. And meanwhile, trying to resist nihilism, but under the pressure of financial necessity, always striving to challenge, he undertook to analyze "unanalyzed" people - in the hope that he would succeed, if not cure them, then at least alleviate suffering or change attitudes towards life.

These patients - maniacs, psychopaths, melancholic, suicides, libertines, masochists, sadists, self-destructive, narcissists - consulted other specialists who, like Freud, did not achieve successful results *. But only Freud was accused of all the abominations both during life and after death: a charlatan, a swindler, a money-lover, etc.

That is why it is very important to study in all details some of the treatment courses - of those that turned out to be the most unsuccessful and, on the contrary, completed. Let us first emphasize that out of all 170 patients received by Freud, no matter what they treated, twenty people received no benefit, and about a dozen abandoned him, so much so that they hated the doctor himself. Most of them turned to other therapists, on the same payment terms, without achieving better results... Today, no researcher can tell what the fate of these patients would have been if they had done nothing at all to get rid of their suffering. […]

After 1920, Freud could enjoy great happiness, contemplating the enormous success that psychoanalysis enjoyed on the other side of the planet. It was then quite clear that his business was moving forward, and yet he did not find satisfaction. Everything went as if he feared that, having abandoned his ideas, they would be accepted only in order to distort them. "Who will the bumps fall on when I'm not alive?" - he said to himself, thinking about all kinds of "deviations" that his theory has undergone through the fault of his contemporaries. Like most founders, Freud did not want to be a Cerberus guarding his discoveries and concepts, taking on the risk of erecting idolatry and foolishness into law.

In such and such a state of mind, he received patients from the victorious countries at Berggass, in particular the Americans, who paid him in foreign currency and who came to learn the craft of psychoanalysis and meet in person. In vain Freud was indignant, he was forced to admit that any treatment, frankly carried out in English with students who are ready to cooperate, brings to psychoanalysis a possible future, such as he had not even dreamed of. Therefore, he was forced to moderate his anti-American views and admit that other promised lands were opening up for his theory: France, the United Kingdom, the USA, Latin America, Japan, etc.

* Of Freud's 170 patients, there are 20 Americans, almost all from New York. Tadeusz Ames (1885–1963) met Freud in Vienna in 1911 or 1912. Monroe Meyer (1892–1939), a melancholic psychiatrist, committed suicide at age 47 with a sharp glass cut. Anti-Freudians accused Freud that he was to blame for this voluntary death, which occurred 18 years after Monroe's stay in Vienna. Leonard Blumgard remained an orthodox Freudian.

Abram Kardiner was born in New York and came from a family of Jewish tailors who came from Ukraine. In October 1921, a young doctor of thirty, he went to Vienna to be treated by Freud, as many of his compatriots would do: Adolph Stern, Monroe Meyer, Clarence Obendorf, Albert Polon, Leonard Blumgard *. Passionate about anthropology, abandoning dogmas, he was already practicing psychoanalysis when he was treated for the first time, on the couch with Horace Frink, regarding this experience as unsuccessful.

He met with Freud for six months, talked about his parents - poor migrants who fled anti-Semitic persecution: arriving in Ellis Iceland, looking for work, the death of his mother from tuberculosis when he was only three years old, prayers in a language he did not know , fear of unemployment, hunger, the appearance of a stepmother, who herself came from Romania and aroused a strong sexual desire in him. Kardiner talked about musical tastes, about the doom of his own Jewry, about Yiddish, then about anti-Semitism, his desire to become a great "doctor", about his interest in the communities of national minorities - Indians, Irish, Italians, about that notorious "melting pot" something similar to Central European.

Kardiner also recalled his teenage days. The stepmother had an underdeveloped uterus, which did not allow her to have children, which he was glad of. About his father, he said that he once cursed and hit his mother, whom he did not marry for love. In his memory, he retains the memory of the unfortunate woman who gave him life, but did not have time to grow up. It was under the influence of his stepmother that the patient's father was able to become a real husband, devoted to the family. After an unsuccessful love for a girl, followed by depression, Kardiner became interested in the study of medicine, thinking how he, the son of a Jewish tailor turned American, would become a brilliant intellectual, headlong into psychoanalysis and cultural studies. And yet he was tormented by anxiety, which made him vulnerable to any life's achievements.

He told Freud two dreams. In the first, three Italians urinated on him, each had a penis sticking up, and in the second he slept with his own stepmother. The cardiner was clearly the ideal "Freudian patient" - intelligent, dreamy, suffering from phobic neurosis, from a love affair with a stepmother who replaced his mother, a victim of an abusive father who married before leaving, by contract. But before his Viennese teacher, he did not bow in the least, he just wanted to go through this experience with him. Admiring him, he willingly challenged his interpretations.

Another was the case of Clarence Obendorf, who founded the New York Psychoanalytic Society with Brill and was treated at the same time as Cardiner. Freud despised him, considered him stupid and arrogant. Obendorf, on the other hand, turned out to be much more loyal to him than Kardiner, although very cautiously, and with good reason, treated psychoanalysts seeking, wherever possible, "primary scenes." He believed that the old-fashioned treatment was no longer suitable for new times.

* Clarence Obendorf (1882-1954) was an orthodox Freudian, hostile to its simplistic psychoanalysis. He wrote the first official work on the history of psychoanalysis in the United States.

On the very first day of the analysis, he told of a dream in which he was driven in a carriage drawn by two horses, black and white, in an unknown direction. Freud knew that the patient was born in Atlanta, in a southern family, as a child he had a black nanny, to whom he was very attached. He immediately expressed a startling interpretation of this dream, telling Obendorf that he would not marry, since he would not be able to choose between white and black women. After losing his temper, Obendorf argued about sleep with Freud and Kardiner for three months. He felt all the more humiliated because he was a venerable analyst, trained on the couch with Federn, and stopped interpreting dreams. According to Kardiner, he remained a bachelor, and Freud continued to despise him.

"If the analysand wanted to become an analyst himself, then the treatment had much more chances to become therapeutic, then scientific."

Freud was far more fortunate with Cardiner than with Obendorf. A sort of Danube prophetess, he explained to him that he identifies himself with the misfortune of his own mother, and this speaks of "unconscious homosexuality", that the three Italians from his dream are the father who humiliated him, and that the breakup with the bride repeated the initial refusal, which will no longer happen because he overcame it himself. Regarding another dream, Freud explained to Cardiner that he wanted to be subordinate to his father, so as not to "wake up the sleeping dragon." On two points - unconscious homosexuality and submission to the father - Freud was wrong, and the patient noticed this.

When six months passed, Freud judged that Kardiner's analysis had been successful and predicted a brilliant career for him, an exceptional financial success, happiness in love affairs, and was absolutely right. In 1976, moving away from psychoanalytic dogmatism and leaving widespread Oedipianism and canonical interpretations of latent homosexuality or father's law, Kardiner recalled his time on Berggasse with delight: “Today, I would say, when I have a general understanding, that Freud brilliantly performed my analysis ... Freud was a great analyst because he never used theoretical expressions - at least then - and he formulated all his interpretations in ordinary language. An exception is the reference to the Oedipus complex and the concept of unconscious homosexuality, he processed material without interrupting everyday life. As for the interpretation of dreams, it was extremely insightful and intuitive. " It is necessary to add about Freud's mistake about the "sleeping dragon". “The person who substantiated the concept of transfer did not recognize it. He was missing one thing. Yes, of course, I was afraid of my father when I was little, but in 1921 the person I was afraid of was Freud himself. He could give me life or break it, and this did not depend on my father. "

This testimony is all the more interesting since Kardiner came to Vienna, as he considered his analysis with Frink to be insufficient. He, in any case, did not know that he himself was being treated by Freud, and the treatment was going on with great difficulty. Of course, Cardiner noticed Frink's aggressiveness, but he showed no signs of psychosis. A more dogmatic Freudian than Freud himself, Frink interpreted Cardiner's relationship with his father as a desire for Oedipus death. “You were jealous of him, jealous that he owned your stepmother,” he told him. This misinterpretation caused Kardiner's new flare-ups of anxiety and a legitimate desire to end the treatment. Not wishing to harm Frink, Freud rejected this intention. At the end of the analysis, he told Kardiner his concerns. He was no longer interested in therapeutic issues, he said. “Now my impatience is much less. Some obstacles prevent me from becoming a great analyst, and I suffer from them. By the way, I am more than a father. I do too much theory. "

In April 1922, when Kardiner told him that psychoanalysis could not harm anyone, Freud showed two photographs of Frink, one taken before analysis (in October 1920) and the other a year later. On the first, Frink looked like a man the Cardiner knew, and on the second he looked bewildered, haggard. Were these metamorphoses really the result of experiments on the couch? Cardiner doubted this more than Freud, who was never able to escape the nightmare of this tragic treatment, in which conjugal relations, adultery, psychoanalytic endogamy and misdiagnosis were mixed.

* Painful Fears and Obsessions by Horace Frink: Horace W. Frink, Morbid Fears and Compulsions, Boston, Moffat, Yard & Co., 1918.

Horace Westlake Frink was born in 1883. He was neither Jewish, nor the son of European emigrants, nor rich, nor neurotic. Gifted with an exceptional mind, he began studying psychiatry early and wanted to become a psychoanalyst. Suffering from manic-depressive psychosis from his youth, he was analyzed by Brill, then joined the New York Psychoanalytic Society, and a few years later published a genuine bestseller that contributed to the popularization of Freudianism across the Atlantic. * In 1918, he became one of the most famous psychoanalysts on the East Bank, suffering from bouts of melancholy and mania, accompanied by delusions and an obsessive desire to commit suicide. His life was divided in two: on the one hand, his legal wife Doris Best, from whom he had two children, on the other, his mistress Angelica Bijur, a former patient, a fabulously rich heiress who married the famous American lawyer Abraham Bijur, who was analyzed by him, and then at Tadeusz Ames.

Frink's mistress hurried to divorce, and he went to Vienna to undergo treatment with Freud and finally decide who would become the woman of his life. In turn, Angelica (Anji) also consulted with Freud, who advised her to divorce and marry Frink, otherwise he risks becoming a homosexual. In his patient, he diagnosed repressed homosexuality. In fact, he was fascinated by this brilliant man, calling him "a very sweet boy, whose condition has stabilized thanks to changes in life." He urged him to take Brill's place.

It was impossible for Frink to acknowledge such a diagnosis. Meanwhile, having lost his discretion after all that the "Herr Professor" did, he decided to leave Doris and marry Anji. Outraged by this behavior, which, he said, runs counter to all ethics, Abraham Bijur wrote an open letter to the New York Times, in which he called Freud a "charlatan doctor." He handed a copy to Tadeusz Ames, who forwarded it to Freud, stressing that the New York Psychoanalytic Society could be in danger from this case if the letter went to press. Jones, who was trying to put out the fire, he said that Anji got it wrong. And he emphasized, however - that was his deepest thought - that society would treat adultery much more favorably than the divorce of two unfortunate spouses who want to create a new family. Thus, he seemed to admit that, not by washing, so by rolling, he pushed Horace and Anzhi to divorce, but only because, as it seemed to him, they both would not find a common language with their current spouses.

In other circumstances, Freud took different solutions, in particular, when he was sure that adultery was just a symptom of a problem that was not settled with his still beloved spouse. In short, as much as he cursed adultery, he also favored “good partings,” provided that they led to a new marriage. As for this particular case, he was cruelly mistaken about Frink. And he persisted, sending him a meaningless letter: “I demanded from Anzhi not to repeat to outsiders that I advised you to marry her, otherwise you may have a nervous breakdown. Let me tell you about your idea that she has lost part of her beauty, can she not be replaced by another - that she has gained part of her fortune? You complain that you do not understand your homosexuality, which implies that you cannot imagine me as a rich man. If all goes well, we will replace the imaginary gift with a real contribution to psychoanalytic funds. "

Like all his followers, Freud contributed his share of the financing of the psychoanalytic movement. Therefore, it is not surprising that he gave Frink the idea to also participate financially with some kind of donation in order to be cured of fantasies. As for the interpretations according to which a woman, who had lost her attractiveness in the eyes of her lover, could interest him in her condition, it stemmed from traditional ideas about a bourgeois family. Freud behaved with his patient as in the old days - a matchmaker, confusing the couch and marriage advice. Proof that he did not understand Frink's disorder, mistaking him for an intelligent neurotic with a repressed homosexuality in relation to his father. Having gained the opportunity to marry his mistress, he experienced a terrible feeling of guilt and in November 1922 returned to Vienna again. When he had a brief bout of delirium, he felt as if he was lying in a grave, and during the sessions he walked frantically in circles until Freud called another doctor, Joe Asch, to treat him and look after him at the hotel. The situation worsened when, after her ex-husband married Anji, Doris died from complications of pneumonia. Frink claimed that he loved his first wife, then began to harass the second.

In May 1924, Freud was forced to abandon his patient, declare him mentally ill and unable to lead the New York Psychoanalytic Society. “I had pinned all my hopes on him, although the response to psychoanalysis treatment was of a psychotic nature. […] When he saw that he was not allowed to freely satisfy his childhood desires, he could not resist. He renewed his relationship with his new wife. Under the pretext that she is intractable in matters of money, he did not receive in return the recognition that he constantly demanded from her. " At the request of Frink himself, he was admitted to a psychiatric clinic at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, where he was treated by Adolph Meyer, and here he learned that Anji wanted to break up with him. Throughout his subsequent life, he fell into inspiration, then into melancholy, died in 1936, forgotten by everyone.

40 years later, his daughter Helene Kraft discovered, among the papers of Adolf Meyer, the correspondence between her father and Freud, as well as many other documents and, having publicly disclosed their contents, called the Viennese teacher a charlatan. The adherents of anti-Freudianism took advantage of this to accuse Freud of manipulating patients who became victims of his insidious theory under his pen. As for psychoanalysts, they continued to turn a blind eye to the clinical mistakes of their idol. […]