Social ecology in the modern world. The problem of developing a unified approach to understanding the subject of social ecology
Seminar 1 question 1
The Constitution provides that land and other natural resources are used and protected in the Russian Federation as the basis of the life and activities of peoples living in the relevant territory. This provision is the foundation of the rights and obligations of the state, society and land holders. In addition, it, contrary to the norms of federal laws, has given a reason for a number of subjects of the Russian Federation to declare land and other natural resources by his property, having assisted by some functions of the Russian Federation in the field of use and protection of land.
The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation in the decision of 07.06.2000 No. 10-P "in the case on the verification of the constitutionality of the individual provisions of the Constitution of the Republic of Altai and the Federal Law" On the General Principles of the Organization of Legislative (Representative) and the executive bodies of the state authorities of the Russian Federation "" considered, in particular , the question of advertising the property (property) of the Republic of Altai of all natural resources on its territory. It was recognized that the Directorate of the Russian Federation of the Russian Federation has the right to declare its property (property) natural resources on its territory and carry out such regulation that limits their use in the interests of all peoples of the Russian Federation, since it is violated by its sovereignty, as well as the delimitation of objects and powers established by the Constitution .
The protection of land as the basis of the life and activity of the peoples was provided for in the RSFSR ZK, the structure of this norm did not lose its meaning and at present. The ZK provides for the ecological component of the protection of land, as they are the basis of the life and activities of peoples. The objectives of the protection of land are achieved through the implementation of a system of legal, organizational, economic and other activities aimed at their rational use, the prevention of unreasonable seizures of land from agricultural turnover, protection against harmful effects, as well as on the restoration of land productivity, including forest land, and on reproduction and increase soil fertility.
The Law on Environmental Protection provides for a number of environmental requirements imposed on landlords, in particular:
- when land reclamation, placement, design, construction, reconstruction, commissioning and operation of landlocative systems and separately located hydraulic structures (Article 43);
- production, treatment and neutralization of potentially hazardous chemicals, including radioactive, other substances and microorganisms (art. 47);
- the use of radioactive substances and nuclear materials (art. 48);
- the use of chemicals in rural and forestry (Art. 49);
- Production and consumption waste management (Art. 51).
Question 2 The concept of social ecology as a scientific and methodological basis
Social ecology is a scientific discipline that considers the relationship in the Society-Nature system, which studies the interaction and relationship between human society with the natural environment (Nikolai Reimers).
But this definition does not reflect the specifics of this science. Social ecology is currently being formed as a private independent science with a specific subject of research, namely:
the composition and features of the interests of social layers and groups operating natural resources;
perception of various social layers and groups of environmental problems and measures to regulate environmental management;
accounting and use in the practice of environmental measures of the features and interests of social layers and groups
Thus, social ecology is the science of the interests of social groups in the field of environmental management.
Tasks of social ecology
The purpose of social ecology is to create the theory of the evolution of the relationship between human and nature, logic and methodology for converting the natural environment. Social ecology is designed to understand and help overcome the gap between man and nature, between humanitarian and natural scientific knowledge.
Social ecology as a science should establish scientific laws, certificates of objectively existing necessary and significant relationships between phenomena, the signs of which are general, the constancy and possibility of their foresight, it is necessary to thus formulate the basic laws of the interaction of elements in the Society - Nature system to allowed to establish a model of optimal interaction of items in this system.
Installation of social environmental laws should first indicate those of them that proceeded from the understanding of society as an environmental subsystem. First of all, these are laws that in the thirties were formulated by Bauer and Vernadsky.
The first law suggests that the geochemical energy of living matter in the biosphere (including humanity as the highest manifestation of living matter, endowed with the mind) seeks to the maximum expression.
The second law contains a statement that in the course of evolution, those types of living beings remain, which increase their biogenic geochemical energy to their livelihoods.
Social ecology identifies the patterns of the relationship between nature and society, which are equally fundamental, as well and patterns are physical. But the complexity of the subject of the research, which includes three qualitatively different subsystems - non-fat and wildlife and human society, and the short time of the existence of this discipline lead to the fact that social ecology, at least at present, mainly empirical science, and it formulated by it Patterns are extremely general aphoristic statements (such as "laws" of Commemor).
Law 1. Everything is connected with everything. This law postulates the unity of the world, he tells us about the need to look and study the natural origins of events and phenomena, the occurrence of their chains, the stability and variability of these connections, the appearance of breaks and new links in them, stimulates to study these breaks to heal, as well as predict the course of events .
Law 2. Everything must go somewhere. It is easy to see that this is essentially simply rephrased by the well-known conservation laws. In the most primitive form, this formula can be interpreted as follows: Matter does not disappear. The law should be distributed to the information and the spiritual. This law aims us to study the environmental trajectories of the movement of nature elements.
Law 3. Nature knows better. Any major human intervention in natural systems is harmful to her. This law seems to separate a person from nature. Its essence is that everything that has been created before man and without a person is a product of long trial and errors, the result of a complex process based on factors such as abundance, ingenuity, indifference to individuals with a comprehensive desire for unity. In its formation and development, nature has developed a principle: what is going, then it is understood. In nature, the essence of this principle is that not a single substance cannot be synthesized if there is no means to destroy it. This is based on the entire cyclic mechanism. The person in its activity does not always provide for this.
Law 4. Nothing is given in vain. In other words, you have to pay for everything. Essentially, this is the second law of thermodynamics, talking about the presence in the nature of fundamental asymmetry, i.e., unidirectionalities of all spontaneous processes occurring in it. In the interaction of thermodynamic systems with the environment, there are only two ways to transmit energy: heat and operation. The law suggests that in order to increase its internal energy, natural systems create the most favorable conditions - they are "duties" do not take. All the work produced without loss can go to heat and replenish the internal energy of the system. But, if we do the opposite, that is, we want to work at the expense of the internal energy of the system, i.e., through the warmth, we must pay. All the warmth turn into work is impossible. Any heat machine (technical device or natural mechanism) has a refrigerator, which, as a tax inspector, collects duty. Thus, the law states that it is impossible to live for free. Even the most common analysis of this truth shows that we live in debt, as we pay less than the real value of the goods. But, as you know, the growth of debt leads to bankruptcy.
The concept of the law is interpreted by a majority of methodologies in the sense of unambiguous causal relationships. A wider interpretation of the concept of law as a diversity limitations gives cybernetics, and it is more suitable for social ecology that detects the fundamental limitations of human activity. It would be ridiculous to put forward as a gravitational imperative that a person should not jump from a high height, because death in this case waits inevitably. But the adaptive capabilities of the biosphere, allowing to compensate for the violation of environmental patterns to achieve a certain threshold, make environmental imperatives necessary. The main one can be formulated as follows: the conversion of nature must comply with its adaptation capabilities.
One way to formulate socio-environmental patterns is the transfer of them from sociology and ecology. For example, as the basic law of social environment, the law of compliance of the productive forces and production relations of the state of the natural environment, which is a modification of one of the laws of political economy. The patterns of social ecology proposed on the basis of the study of ecosystems, we will consider after familiarization with the environment.
What color grass or heaven on a clear summer day? What color orange or lemon? Probably, anyone from early childhood will answer these questions, who thinks not long. And here is the question: "What is this color -" Rosa "or" Marengo "? - make many think before answering. Although it is one of the common favorite colors in the design of clothes. A good average level is also required, and even better - artistic special preparation to distinguish the color of "Pompey" from the color of "Syracuse" or the color of "Queenji" from Wang Duck. Well, and on the question: "What color" thigh frightened nymph "or" Lark song "?" - only the authors of these names will be responsible for sure. But the names of these colors and the like many times have repeatedly sounded with the Paris podiums of high fashion and, probably, many nonprames would like to learn from curiosity, and maybe to sew yourself something in the "Nymphs" color. Unfortunately, neither color printing of magazines, nor broadcast on television will be able to transfer genuine color. And then come to the rescue basic color characteristicsThrough which you can choose any color. True, ordinary seamstresses do not really use them, but professional fashion designers, textiles, designers, as well as military and criminologists, paint manufacturers and accurate measurement devices without them can not do without them.
Color tone, lightlock and saturation - Subjective main color characteristics. They are called them because they are used to describe visual sensations, in contrast to the objective defined using the instruments.
Color tone is the main characteristic of chromatic colors, is determined by the similarity of this color with one of the colors of the spectrum. The color tone indicates its own color sensations of a person - red, yellow, yellow-red, and each of these sensations is generated by the radiation of a certain wavelength (A.). For example, a red color tone corresponds to a wavelength - 760 nm, and a blue-green - 493 nm. When we look at the red rose and yellow dandelion, we see that they differ in color tone - red and yellow.
Achromatic colors of color tone no. "Color tone" in the flowerism and "tone" in painting are different concepts. Tone color or tonality artists change with white paint, which reduces color intensity, increasing its light lighter. Or by overlaying paint layers one to another. The concept of "tone" is used in drawing. In the visual arts, such terms are also used as halftone, subton, shade . Halftone is a darker or light tone. For example, blue and light blue. Subaton is an admixture of another color mostly colors tone, which creates a shade. For example, a magenta color is a shade of red, namely - red with blue subtock.
Svetlota. When we look at two green leaf on one tree branch, we see that they can be the same in color tone, but one can be lighter (lit by the sun), and the other is darker (in the shade). In these cases, they say that colors differ in lightness.
Svetlota - characteristic of colors, which determines the proximity of chromatic and achromatic colors to white. It is estimated by the reflection coefficient (P), is measured as a percentage or threads (NT). In the light scale the brightest - white color. The youngest - black, between them - gradations of pure gray. Among the spectral colors the brightest is yellow, the most dark - purple.
Svetlota is characterized by the degree of brightness of direct or reflected radiation, but at the same time, the sensation of lightness is not proportionally brightness . It can be said that the brightness is the physical basis of lightness. Very often in the flower science literature confuse these concepts.
The brightness (radiation power) is an objective concept, as it depends on the amount of light that falls into the eye of the observer from the object of the emitting passing through itself or reflecting the light. In use, the difference between brightness and solesterus is usually not noticed, and both concepts are considered almost as equivalent. However, some distinction can be selected, which reflects both the difference between both characteristics. As a rule, the word "brightness" is used to characterize particularly light surfaces, highly illuminated and reflecting a large amount of light. So, for example, the snow illuminated by the sun is a bright surface, and the white wall of the room is light. The term "brightness" is mainly used to evaluate light sources. Finally, this term is often used to characterize the color, having in mind the quality of the latter as saturation or purity.
Saturation. If we compare two transparent glasses, one of which is poured orange juice, and in the other - the water is slightly tinted with orange dye, then we will notice the difference orange color By saturation. (Yes, and to taste, these drinks are also very different).
Saturation is a characteristic of colors, which is determined by the content of pure chromatic color in mixed (P), expressed in the fractions of the unit. Clean chromatic colors are spectral colors. Their purity is taken per unit. The smaller the saturation of the chromatic color, the closer it is to the achromatic colors, and the easier it is to find an achromatic color according to the lightness, therefore, sometimes in the color science, the definition of saturation as "the degree of difference of this chromatic color from the same gray-color lightness." The combination of color tone and saturation is called color .
Thus, all chromatic colors are estimated by parameters, the numerical definition of which allows you to characterize all possible combinations of color radiation.
That is, at any point in the world, it is possible to determine with one hundred percent accuracy, what is the color, loved by Parisian designers - "The Color of the Hip frightened nymph". (If they, of course, kindly communicate the world color parameters - the main characteristics of this color.)
In the term "social ecology", a certain duality is laid, this duality is characteristic of both the person himself: on the one hand, a person as a living biological being is part of the natural nature, and as a substance public is part of society, social environment.
What sciences should the social ecology, humanitarian or natural, social or environmental and environmental, should be attributed to? What is more in social ecology - natural or public? Some scientists, mainly representing natural sciences (anthropologists, geographers, biologists) believe that social ecology is a section of ecology, namely, the section of human ecology. Others, mainly sociologists, talk about the humanitarian orientation of social ecology, represent it as a branch of sociology. Philosophers, historians, doctors have made a huge contribution to the development of social ecology.
Does not add clarity and initial interpretation of the term "Human Ecology", given Roderick Mackenzie in 1924, which determined "Human Ecology" as a science on those spatial and temporal forms of human existence, which are due to selective (promoting selection), distributive (predetermining distribution) and adaptive Environment forces. That is, it was about the natural environment as the vital activity of social groups and societies and the features of these social groups and societies depending on the properties of this arena. Interestingly, this interpretation of the term "Human Ecology" is surprisingly consistent with the conclusions of the ancient historian of Herodota (484-425 BC), having listed the process of formation in people's character and establishing a political system with the action of natural factors (climate, landscape features, etc.). As can be seen from this example, the history of social ecology, which arranged in a separate science in the twentieth century, is rooted in deep antiquity. The problems of the relationship between nature and society occupied the minds of scientists since the emergence of science. Not only Herodotus, but also Hippocrates, Plato, Eratosthene, Aristotle, Fuchidide, Diodor Sicilian studied various aspects of these interactions. Diodorus Sicilian first formulated the idea of \u200b\u200bthe dependence between productive labor force and natural conditions. He noted the natural advantages of agriculture in the Egyptians in front of other peoples of the Mediterranean. The grocery and obesity of the Indians (which he knew from the stories), he directly connected with the abundance of fruits, also by natural factors he explained the features of the Scythians. Eratosthen approved such an approach to the study of land in science, in which it is considered as a person's house, and called this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge of geography3. The doctor of the hippocracy, first of all, worried about the impact of nature for each separate human individual, and not to society. Therefore, the Hippocrat is considered to be the father of medical geography. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe prevailing effect of nature on a person and society through geographical factors is strengthened in science even more in the Middle Ages, and later, she received the most complete development in the writings of Montesquieu (1689-1755), Henry Thomas Side (1821-1862), L.I . Mechnikova (1838-1888), F. Ratzel (1844-1904). According to the ideas of these scientists, the geographical environment and natural conditions determine not only the public organization, but also the nature of the people, and the person remains only to adapt to nature. As the Swiss geographer, sociologist and publicist of Russian origin, noted L.I. Mechnikov The role of the natural environment - to teach people of solidarity and mutual assistance, at first the power of fear and coercion (river civilizations), then based on benefits (maritime civilizations) and, finally, on the basis of free choice (global oceanic civilization). In this case, the evolution of civilization and the medium occurs in parallel. English historian Henry Thomas Bohemore belongs to Aphorism "Insert the richest countries were those whose nature was most abundant; Now the richest countries are those in which a person is most actors. " The American scientist J. Buses notes that the human geography line - the human ecology - society originated in the works of O.Konta and was further developed by other sociologists.
Below are some of the most well-known definitions of the social ecology of leading scientists in this field.
According to E.V. Birusov, social ecology is the environment on the environment, considered in the framework of the theory of interaction between society and nature in order to find out the patterns of developing these relations and find ways to optimize them.
According to N.F.reimers, social ecology is devoted to the relationship in the Society-Nature system at different structural levels of the anthroposphere, from humanity to an individual, and enters the anthropology.
Social ecology (socioecology) is the science that formed in the 70s-190s of the 20th century, which has its own subject relationship between society and nature, which aims to bring these attitudes to the state of harmony, based on the force of the human mind (Yu.G. Markov).
Social ecology - a separate sociological science, the subject of studying the specific relations between humanity and the environment; The influence of the latter as a totality of natural and public factors per person, as well as its influence on the environment from the position of its preservation for his life as a natural and social being (Danish, Markovich).
IK Fastryakova, so-called. Karyakina and E.A. Meerson, believes that social environment can be determined as "sectoral sociology, the subject of studying the specific links between human and the environment, the influence of the latter as a totality of natural and public factors per person, as well as its influence on the environment from the position of its preservation for it Life as a natural and social being "Bystryakov I.K., Meerson E.A., Karyakina T.N. Social ecology: lecture course. / under total. Ed. E.A. Meerson. Volgograd. Publishing House Volga, 1999. - P. 27 ..
Social ecology is an association of scientific sectors that study the connection of social structures (starting from the family and other small public groups) with the natural and social medium of their habitat (T.A. Akimova, V.V. Khaskin).
Social ecology is the science of the development and functioning of social communities, social structures and institutions under the conditions of impact on their vital activity of environmental factors of an anthropological nature, leading to social and environmental tensions and conflicts, as well as the mechanisms for their decline or permission; On the laws of social actions and mass behavior in the conditions of social and environmental tension or conflict against the background of the manifestation of the environmental crisis (Sosnova I. A.).
Social ecology is a scientific discipline empirically exploring and theoretically generalizing specific connections between society, the nature, man and its living environment (surroundings) in the context of the global problems of humanity in order not only to preserve, but also improving human habitat as a natural and social being ( A.V. Losev, G.G. Proves).
V.A. Elk determines the social environment as a science focused on identifying basic patterns and forms of human interaction with its habitat, the study of diverse connections and changes occurring in the biosphere, under the influence of the production and economic and socio-cultural activities of the Company.
An analysis of the history of the development of socioecological knowledge and analysis of the definitions of social ecology indicates that the concept of "social ecology" evolves. And, despite deep roots, social ecology is a young science: as in other young sciences, social ecology has no single definition of the subject of scientific research by V.A. Ecology: Textbook / V.A. Elk. - M.: Publishing House "Exam", 2006. - P. 34 ..
The object of social ecology as integrative science is The diverse connections of the system "Society - Nature", which appears in a more concrete form as a system "Society - Man - Technique - Natural Environment."
The subject of social ecology is the laws of development of the Society "Society" and the principles and methods of optimization and harmonization of human relations with nature. The first part of the subject represents the gnoseological side of it and is associated with the knowledge of the laws, which in terms of generality below the philosophical, but above the laws of special and complex sciences. The second side of the subject reflects the practical orientation of social ecology and is associated with the study and wording of principles and methods for optimizing and harmonizing human relations with nature, preserving and improving the quality of the human natural environment, and above all its kernel - biosphere. The subject of social ecology is the patterns of the emergence, the formation and development of the noosphere.
Self-determination and identification of any science are associated with the definition of their specific subjects and methods. The difficulty of determining the specific methods of social ecology (as, however, and subjects) is associated with a number of circumstances: the youth of social ecology as science is one of the youngest sciences; the specifics of the very subject of social ecology having a complex nature and includes biotic, abiotic, sociocultural and technical phenomena; the integrative nature of science associated with the need for interdisciplinary synthesis of environmental knowledge and the provision of communication of science with practice; Representative within the framework of social ecology not only descriptive, but also regulatory knowledge.
Social ecology extensive uses such general scientific methods as observation, comparison, generalization, classification, idealization, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis; methods of a causal, structural and functional explanation; Methods of unity of historical and logical, climbing from the abstract to concrete, modeling, etc.
Since social ecology refers to integrative sciences, it is used to use methods of sociological analysis, mathematic and statistical methods, positive and interpretative methods of scientific knowledge.
To the number of fundamental methods of social ecology A number of authors (VD Komarov, D.Zh. Markovich) methods of systemic and complex approaches, system analysis, modeling and forecastingBy tying them with the systemic nature of the biosphere and societary interaction, the integrative nature of the science itself, the need for systemic actions of all mankind in nature and prevent their negative consequences.
The methods of creating geoinformation systems, registration and assessment of the state of the environment, certification and standardization, integrated environmental and economic analysis and environmental diagnostics, engineering and environmental surveys, assessing the influence of man-made pollution, environmental monitoring and monitoring (monitoring, examination) , environmental design.
Introduction ______________________________________________ 3.
Chapter 1. Social Ecology - Science of Global Problems of Modernity 5
1.1 Sources of social ecology ______________ 5
1.2 Item and tasks of social ecology ______________________ 7
Chapter 2. Technical Progress as a source of social and environmental problems 8
2.1 Conflict technology and ecology ___________________________ 8
2.2 Socio-ecological problems of modernity ___________ 9
2.3 Environmental content of the Scientific and Technical Revolution ___ 12
Chapter 3. Technical Progress as a way to overcome
socio-Environmental Problems ______________ 15
3.1 Philosophical views on the solution of global problems of humanity 15
3.2 Basic principles of environmental technologies _______ 16
3.3 Ecotechnology - the basis of the transition to the noosphere ____________ 18
type of civilization __________________________________________ 18
3.4 Technical and technological component concept __________ 21
sustainable Development _______________________________________ 21
Conclusion ______________________________________________ 23.
Bibliographic list ____________________________________ 24
Introduction
At the end of the twentieth century, destructive anthropogenic, mainly technological, pressure on the environment, which led humanity to the global crisis was sharply intensified. Modern civilization was at that point of the world-historical process, called various researchers in different ways ("Moments" - I. TEN, "KNOTS" - A. SOLZHENICHN, "DOMES" - A. Toynby, etc.), which determines Dynamics and direction of civilization development for a long term. The contradiction between the growth of population and the ability to satisfy his material and energy needs, on the one hand, the relatively limited possibilities of natural ecosystems on the other, acquire antagonistic. Their exacerbation is fraught with irreversible degradation changes in the biosphere, the radical transformation of the traditional natural conditions of the functioning of civilization, which also creates a real threat to the vital interests of future generations of humanity.
The need to understand and overcoming the current situation nominated environmental issues to one of the first places in the hierarchy of the global problems of modernity. Increasingly, in various forums of scientists, public and political figures, anxious statements sound that aggregate human activity is able to fundamentally undermine the natural equilibrium of the biosphere and thereby put civilization before the threat of death. The social problems of increasing environmental and technological risk are increasingly being discussed.
The experience of recent decades is irreversible indicating that in the overwhelming majority of environmental disasters the main culprit becomes increasingly not the unpredictability of the operation of technological means or natural elements, and the unprofitable, unpredictable human activity, which is not particularly irreparable harmful harm to its technological effect. Therefore, in environmental studies in different countriesah in the world, more and more experience a turn to the accounting of social factors, both in the creation of an environmental problem and in its solution. It is becoming increasingly clear that humanity united in an ecological imperative should move to environmentally oriented consciousness, thinking and action, to environmentally oriented social development. It was at this angle of view that the ecological problem of the recently established industry of scientific knowledge is considered - social ecology. To the center of its attention, it places the study of extreme situations as a result of an equilibrium impairment in the interaction of society with nature, finding out the anthropogenic, technological, social factors of deploying such situations and finding optimal paths and means of overcoming their devastating consequences.
In domestic science, especially since the 70s, such scientists like M. M. Budyko, N. N. Moiseev, E. K. Fedorov, I. T. Frolov, S. S. Schwartz, etc., wide Discussed the acute problems of the environmental crisis of modern civilization, analyzed the stages of the development of society and sociocultural values \u200b\u200bin the light of the relationship between natural, technical and social systems. The search for optimal programs for solving environmental problems was considered the diverse aspects of the environmental reorientation of the economy, technology, education, public consciousness.
So, at present, in order to restore the parity of society and the biosphere, man and nature, a new research approach has been taken by domestic philosophers: a coevolution strategy discussed as a new paradigm of the Civilization of the XXI century. It should have an impact on the change in cognitive and value orientations, to a new understanding of nature, on approval in the consciousness of people of new morality.
Thus, although the resolution of various contradictions in the relationship between man and its habitat, ensuring the yield of civilization to the level of rationalization, optimization and harmonization in the system of relations "Man-Society-Biosphere" - the question of practice, a preliminary change in the conceptual apparatus, and in this process Philosophy should play a major role, helping the environmental reorientation of modern science, affecting social and political and technological solutions in the environmental field and contributing, ultimately, modifications of public consciousness and fundamental approaches to the technical solution of brewing socio-environmental problems. This determines the choice of the topic of this abstract when preparing for the CANDPDAT exam in philosophy.
Chapter 1. Social Ecology - Science of Global Problems of Modernity
1.1 Sources of social ecology
The demographic explosion and scientific and technical revolution led to a colossal increase in the consumption of natural resources. Thus, in the world, 3.5 billion tons of oil and 4.5 billion tons of stone and brown coal are produced annually. Under such pace of consumption, the exhaustion of many natural resources in the near future became apparent. At the same time, waste gigantic industries have become increasingly polluting the environment, destroying the health of the population. In all industrialized countries, cancer, chronic light and cardiovascular diseases received great distribution.
The first to the alarm of scientists. Since 1968, the Italian economist Aurelio Pechesti has become annually to collect large professionals from different countries to discuss the issues of future civilization in Rome. These meetings received the name of the Roman Club. In the first reports, the Roman Club were successfully applied to the study of the development of society global processes imitation mathematical methods developed by Professor Massachusetts Institute of Technology Jeide Forrester. Forrester used research methods created and used in natural and technical sciences, to study evolution processes both in nature and in society flowing on a global scale. On this basis, the concept of global dynamics was built. "Under the" global system "," the scientist noted, "we understand a person, its social systems, technology and the natural environment. The interaction of these elements determines growth, changes and tensions ... in the socio-economic and natural environment."
For the first time in the social forecast were taken into account the components that can be called environmental: The final nature of mineral resources and limited possibilities of natural complexes will absorb and neutralize waste of human production activities.
If the previous predictions that took into account only traditional trends (production growth, consumption growth and population growth) were optimistic, then the accounting of environmental parameters immediately translated the global forecast for the pessimistic version, showing the inevitability of the downward line of the Company by the end of the first third of the XXI century due to The ability to exhaust mineral resources and excessive pollution of the natural environment. Subsequent works carried out by order of the Roman Club under the leadership of D.Meduse ("Growth Limits", 1972), as well as M. Mesarovich and E. Top ("Humanity at the Rotary Point", 1974), basically confirmed justice Forecasts drawn up by J. Forrester.
So for the first time in science, the problem of the possible end of civilization was not in the distant future, which was repeatedly prevented by various prophets, and for a very specific period of time and at quite specific and even prosaic reasons. There was a need for such a knowledge of knowledge that thoroughly investigated the discovered problem and found out the way to prevent the upcoming catastrophe.
This area of \u200b\u200bknowledge was the social ecology, whose task is to study human society in the aspect of its compatibility with the peculiarities of the natural environment.
For conducting research on human ecology required theoretical Foundation. The first theoretical source is first Russian, and then foreign researchers recognized the teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere and the inevitability of its evolutionary transformation into the scope of the human mind - the nosphere.
V. I. Vernadsky proved that human activity is now the main transforming factor in the development of the active shell of the Earth. This implies the need to jointly study the society and the biosphere, the subordination of their unified goal of preserving and the development of mankind. It can be carried out only if the basic processes of the biosphere will be controlled by reason. Noospheric development is a reasonably manageable conjection of man, society and nature, in which the satisfaction of the vital needs of the population is carried out without prejudice to the interests of future generations.
The second source of formation of socioecology is modern technician - a multidimensional set of technical sciences. They consider the diverse functions of technology as the structure of technical systems and technologies created in the labor process to facilitate all types of human activity in the aspect of their environmental impact.
The third source of the formation of socioecology is a modern complex of social sciences, which give the opportunity to reveal the social essence of a person, the social conditionality of its mental activity, feelings, volitional impulses, value orientations, installations in practical activity, including in relation to the environmental and social medium.
Global environmental modeling is performed as a fourth source, whose technique has been developed by J. Forrester.
1.2 Subject and Objectives of Social Ecology
In the field of view of social ecology, not only and not so much natural processes of interaction of living organisms with a natural habitat, how many processes of interaction of complex eco-and socialosystems with social inherent in their essence, i.e. The people arising from the active social activities of a person, the relationships of the Company with artificially created, before the person did not exist elements of the medium that carry the imprint of the activities of people. At the same time, the usual partitions between the cycle of natural sciences (about nature) are destroyed, on the one hand, and social sciences (about society and man as his subject) on the other, but at the same time the new, uniting subject connections between these two different groups of sciences are constructed.
Thus, social ecology studies the structure, features and trends in the functioning of special kind objects, objects of the so-called "second nature", i.e. objects artificially created by a human object interacting with the environment. It is the existence of the "second nature" in the overwhelming majority of cases generates environmental problems arising at the junction of environmental and social systems. These, socioecological problems in their essence and act as an object of a socioecological study.
Social ecology as science has its own specific tasks and functions. Its main tasks are: a study of the relationship between human communities and the surrounding geographically-spatial, social and cultural environment, a direct and side effect of production activities for the composition and properties of the environment. Social ecology considers the Biosphere of the Earth as an ecological niche of humanity, associating the environment and human activity in unified system "Nature-society", reveals the impact of a person to the equilibrium of natural ecosystems, studies the issues of management and rationalization of the relationship between human and nature. The task of social ecology as science is also to offer such effective ways to exposure to the environment, which would not only prevent catastrophic consequences, but also allowed to significantly improve the biological and social conditions for the development of a person and all living on Earth.
Studying the causes of human habitat degradation and measures for its protection and improvement, social ecology should contribute to the expansion of the field of human freedom due to the creation of more humane relations both to nature and other people.
Chapter 2. Technical Progress as a source of social and environmental problems
2.1 Conflict technology and ecology
If our ancestors limited their activities only to the adaptation to nature and the assignment of its finished products, they would never have come out of the animal state in which they were initially found. Only in confrontation between nature, in constant struggle with it and the transformation, respectively, its needs and goals could be formed by the essence of the animal to man. The person was not generated by nature alone, as is often alleged. The beginning of a person could only give such a not quite natural form of activity as work, the main feature of which is the manufacture of some objects (products) with the help of other objects (guns). It was the work that became the basis of human evolution.
Labor activity, giving a person with the enormous advantages in the struggle for survival in front of the rest of the animals, at the same time put it before the danger of becoming with the time of force capable of destroying the natural environment of his own life.
It would be wrong to think that environmental crises provoked by the activities of a person became possible only with the appearance of complex techniques and strong demographic growth. One of the most severe environmental crises took place at the beginning of Neolithic. Having learned quite well to hunt animals, first of all the major, people with their actions led to the disappearance of many of them, including mammoths. As a result, the food resources of the set of human communities have sharply reduced, and this, in turn, led to mass extinction. According to various calculations, the population decreased by 8-10 times. It was a colossal ecological crisis that has grown into a socio-ecological catastrophe. The exit from it was found on the ways of transition to agriculture, and then to livestock, to a tremendous lifestyle. Thus, the ecological niche of the existence and development of mankind has significantly expanded, which the agrarian and craft revolution contributed to the decisive extent, which led to the emergence of qualitatively new tools of labor, which allowed many times to increase the impact of a person on the environment. It turned out to be completed by the era of the "animal life" of man, he began "actively and purposefully interfere in natural processes, rebuild natural biogeochemical cycles."
Violation of "order" in nature, its pollution has ancient traditions. You can name the greatest Roman structure of the VI century. BC. - the big tap canal of feces and other waste. Already in the XIV century, in the pre-industrial period, the English king Eduard II was forced to ban the use of coal for the heating of houses under the threat of the death penalty, so London was polluted by smoke.
But pollution of nature has acquired significant sizes and intensity only during the period of industrialization and urbanization, which led to significant civilizational changes and the mismatch of economic and environmental development. This settlement acquired a dramatic scale starting from the 50s. Our century, when fast and so far, the unthinkable development of productive forces caused such changes in nature, which lead to the destruction of biological prerequisites of human and society's life. The person created technology, denying the forms of life in nature. The use of these technologies leads to an increase in entropy, denial of life. The conflict between technology and the environment has its own source in a person itself, which is both a natural being, and a technological development carrier.
2.2 Socio-ecological problems of modernity
The environmental problems of modernity in their scale can be conditionally divided into local, regional and global and demand for their decisions of unequal funds and various across scientific developments.
An example of a local environmental problem is a plant that is dropping its promotions, harmful to people's health without cleaning into the river. This is a violation of the law. Nature Organs or the public should be fined to finish such a factory and under the threat of closing to force it to build treatment facilities. In this particular science is not required.
An example of regional environmental problems can be the Kuzbass - almost closed in the mountains of a basin, filled with gas coke ovens and smokes of the metallurgical giant, or drying up the Aral Sea with a sharp deterioration of the environmental situation on all its periphery, or high soil radioactivity in areas adjacent to Chernobyl.
To solve such problems, scientific research is already needed. In the first case - development rational methods The absorption of flue and gas aerosols, in the second - accurate hydrological studies to develop recommendations to increase the drain in the Aral Sea, in the third - to clarify the impact on the health of the population of the long exposure to weak doses of radiation and the development of soil deactivation methods.
However, anthropogenic impact on nature has reached such a scale that there were problems of a global nature, which no one could suspect several decades ago.
Since the occurrence of technical civilization on Earth, about 1/3 of the forest area, the desert sharply accelerated their offensive on the green zones. So, the Sahara desert moves to the south at a speed of about 50 km per year. Catastrophic sizes reached the pollution of the ocean with petroleum products, pesticides, synthetic detergents, insoluble plastics. According to inaccurate data (in the direction of understatement), about 30 million tons of petroleum products per year fall into the ocean. Some experts believe that the oil film is covered about 1/5 of the Ocean Square.
The atmosphere pollution occurs in a rapid pace. While the main fuel combustion is the main means of obtaining energy, so every year the consumption of oxygen increases, and carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, as well as a huge amount of soot, dust and harmful aerosols are incurred.
Every year more than 10 billion tons of conditional fuel are burned in the world, and more than 1 billion tons of various suspensions are ejected into the air, among which many carcinogenic substances. According to the review of the Medical Information, over the past 100 years, more than 1.5 million tons of arsenic, 900 thousand tons of cobalt, 1 million tons of silicon appeared to the atmosphere. Only into the atmosphere of the United States annually more than 200 million tons of harmful substances are emitted.
It is believed that the United States burned over themselves all oxygen and maintain energy processes due to oxygen from other planet's territories. With 6% of the US world population consumes about 40% of world natural resources and give approximately 60% of all pollution on the planet.
The sharp warming of the climate began in the second half of the twentieth century is a reliable fact. The average temperature of the surface layer of the air compared to 1956-1957, when the first international geophysical year was conducted, increased by 0.7 ° C. There is no warming equator, but the closer to the poles, the more noticeable. It reaches 2 ° C. In the North Pole, the wedding water warmed at 1 ° C and ice cover began to lifted below. Some scientists believe that warming is the result of burning the huge mass of organic fuel and isolation into the atmosphere of large amounts of carbon dioxide, which is greenhouse, i.e. It makes it difficult to return heat from the surface of the earth. Others, referring to climate change in historical time, consider the anthropogenic climate warming factor with insignificant and bind this phenomenon with the amplification of solar activity.
No less difficult is the ecological problem of the ozone layer. The depletion of the ozone layer is a much more dangerous reality for all living on Earth than the fall of some super-brook meteorite. Ozone does not allow dangerous outer radiation to the surface of the Earth. If it were not ozone, these rays would destroy everything alive. Studies of the reasons for the depletion of the ozone layer of the planet did not give the final responses to all questions.
The rapid growth of the industry, accompanied by the global pollution of the natural environment, was sulled sharply set the problem of raw materials.
Of all the types of resources in the first place for an increase in the needs for it and the increase in the deficit is fresh water. 71% of the entire surface of the planet is occupied by water, but fresh water is only 2% of the total, and almost 80% of fresh water are in the ice cover of the Earth. In most industrial areas, there is not enough water, and its deficit is growing every year.
In general, 10% of the river flow of the planet is withdrawn on household needs. Of these, 5.6% are permanently spent. If the irretrievable water fence will continue to increase in the same pace as now (4-5% annually), then by 2010, humanity may exhaust all freshwater reserves in the geosphere. The situation is complicated by the fact that a large amount of natural water is contaminated with industrialized waste. All this ultimately falls into the ocean, which is already exposed to strong pollution.
In the future, it is anxious and with another natural resource, which was previously inexhaustible - atmosphere oxygen. When burning photosynthesis products of past epochs - combustible fossils, the binding to free oxygen in the compound. Approximately in the depths of the Earth contains 6.4? 10 15 tons of combustible fossils, which would require 1.7? 10 16 tons of oxygen, i.e. More than it is in the atmosphere.
Consequently, long before the exhaustion of the reserves of combustible fossil people must stop their burning, so as not to suffocate themselves and not destroy everything alive.
It is believed that oil reserves on Earth will be depleted after 200 years, coal - after 200-300 years, combustible shale and peat - in the same limits. In about the same time, 2/3 of oxygen reserves in the planet's atmosphere can be exhausted. It should be noted that with the increasing pace of oxygen consumption, the rates of its reproduction with green plants are steadily decreasing, since the developing production and multiple population occur to nature, selecting all new green areas for buildings and land. Every 15 years, the area of \u200b\u200balienated land doubles and, apparently, the limit of the development of the territory is already close. Green plants are displaced not only by buildings, but also a sprawling strip of pollution. Especially detailing pollution for phytoplankton that covered the solid layer the water surface of the planet. It is believed that it reproduces about 34% of the atmosphere oxygen.
Until now, the prospect of the exhaustion of resources is associated with the inertia with the so-called non-natural factors of the natural environment: reserves of iron ore, non-ferrous metals, combustible fossils, precious stones, mineral salts, etc. Deadlines for the development of fields of these resources are obviously finite and vary depending on the wealth of their content in the earth's crust. It is believed that at the current rate of production of lead reserves, tin, copper may be enough for 20-30 years. Terms are small, and therefore the means of compensation and savings of scarce raw materials are already sought in advance. In particular, the improvement of production methods allows you to proceed to develop rocks with the poor content of the necessary elements and someone have already been taken for the processing of rugs of rock. In the future, it will be possible to extract the necessary elements in any quantity of the most common breeds in nature, for example, from granite.
It is different with the resources that have long been accustomed to consider renewable and which were indeed those as long as the increased rates of their consumption and pollution of the medium have not undermined the ability of complexes to self-cleaning and self-healing. Moreover, these undervalued abilities are not renewed by themselves, but, on the contrary, progressively decline as far as the industry is increasing in the same technological mode. However, the consciousness of people still did not rebuild. It, as well as the technique, works in the previous environmentally carefree mode, counting water, air and the living nature of the gift and inexhaustible.
2.3 Environmental Contents of the Scientific and Technical Revolution
The basis of the interaction of the natural environment and human society in the process of manufacturing material goods is the increase in indirectness in human production towards nature. Step by step, the person places among themselves and the nature first transformed with its energy substance (tools of labor), then transformed with the equipment of labor and accumulated energy (steam machines, electrical installations, etc.) and, finally, recently between The third major mediation link arises by man and nature - transformed with electronic computing information information. Thus, the development of civilization is ensured by a continuous expansion of the scope of material production, which covers the tools first, then energy and, finally, recently, information.
Naturally, the natural environment turns out to be increasingly broad and thoroughly involved in the production process. The need for conscious control and regulation of the entire totality of anthropogenic processes both in society itself and in a natural environment is exacerbated. This necessity has become particularly sharply increased with the beginning of the scientific and technical revolution, the essence of which is primarily the mechanization of information processes and the widespread use of management systems in all areas of public life.
With the first place of mediation (making tools of labor), a jump from the world of animals to the social world is connected, with the second (the use of power plants) - a jump in the highest form of a class and antagonistic society, with the third (creating and use of information devices) is due to the proceedability of the transition to society A new state in the intermediary relationship, since for the first time the possibility of a sharp increase in the free time of people for their full and harmonious development appears. In addition, the scientific and technical revolution necessitates a qualitatively new attitude towards nature, as those contradictions between society and nature are exacerbated to the extreme degree, which previously existed in implicit form.
At the same time, restriction began to affect the energy sources of labor, which remained natural. There was a contradiction between new (artificial) means of treating a substance and old (natural) energy sources. The search for methods for resolving the resulting contradiction led to the discovery and use of artificial energy sources. But the solution of the energy problem has generated a new contradiction between artificial processing methods. Substances and energy production, on the one hand, and natural (using the nervous system) by processing information - on the other. The search for methods for removing this restriction was activated, and the problem was solved with the invention of countable solving machines. Now, finally, all three natural factor (substance, energy, information) turned out to be covered by artificial means of their use by man. Thus, all natural restrictions were discontinued for the development of production, inherently inherent in this process.
The most important feature of the scientific and technological revolution is that for the first time in the interaction of society with nature, the limit (in the sense of coverage) is mediated by all natural factors of production and thereby opened fundamentally new opportunities for the further development of society as a consciously controlled and regulated process.
Under these conditions, the subordination of the production only by the selfish interests of entrepreneurs can be fraught with serious consequences for society. Proof of this - the threat of the environmental crisis. This is rather new and therefore still a little studied phenomenon that has arisen during the deployment of the scientific and technical revolution.
The danger of the environmental crisis coincided with the scientific and technical revolution is not accidental. The scientific and technical revolution creates the conditions for the removal of technical restrictions in the use of natural resources. As a result of the removal of internal restrictions on the development of production, a new contradiction took an exceptionally acute form - between internally infinite features Production development and naturally limited abilities of the natural environment. This is a contradiction, as well as previously arising, can be solved only if the natural conditions of society will be increasingly covered by artificial means of regulation by people.
Measures to reiterate production technology, waste treatment, noise control, etc., which are now organized in developed countries, only delay the offensive of the catastrophe, but are not able to prevent it, because they do not eliminate the root causes of the environmental crisis.
The environmental content of the scientific and technical revolution and its contradiction is also manifested in the fact that during its deployment, the necessary technical prerequisites for ensuring a new nature of attitudes towards nature arise (the possibility of transition of production on closed cycles, transition to flaming production, the possibility of efficient use of energy up to creation technical autotrophic systems, etc.).
V. I. Vernadsky with naturally scientific positions showed that humanity should realize its place and role in natural circulation of substances and energy and optimally enter their production activities in these cycles. From here V. I. Vernadsky made an important conclusion that people need to be aware of not only their interests and needs, but also their own planetary role as energy transformers and redistributors of the substance on the earth's surface based on new ways to use information. Global processes caused by people must correspond to the organizedness of the biosphere, which has established long before the appearance of a person. People are quite capable of knowing the objective laws of the organizations of the biosphere and consciously take them into account in their activities, as they have long taken into account the laws of individual parts and elements of the biosphere, transforming them for practical purposes.
Chapter 3. Technical Progress as a way to overcome socio-environmental problems
3.1 Philosophical views on the solution of global problems of humanity
The needs of the emerging natural science and developing industrial production justified the reality of opposing human environmental reality. To destroy these stereotypes within the framework of anthropol-naturalistic ideas was tried by French enlightenment. Nature (external environment), interpreted in different ways, provides, according to representatives of this direction, decisive effects per person. The French materialists defended, thus, the principle of the unity of man and nature, based on the contemplative, "eternal" harmony between them.
The representatives of the philosophical and religious direction, the "Russian Cosmism" XIX century, are particularly in the interpretation of the processes of relations between human and nature relations. (N. F. Fedorov, K. E. Tsiolkovsky, V. I. Vernadsky, etc.), which in the system of philosophical and theological constructions raised the question of "theocosmic alliance", the paths of "aggregate salvation of mankind", on the immortality of the human race, Justified a positive trend towards the harmony of biosphere and cosmic processes, seeking to find a proper place of a person in the system of his relationship with the world of material and ideal things and phenomena.
Most conceptual constructions of the twentieth century, especially the second half of half, unites the philosophy of technocraticism, coming from the fact that scientific and technological progress creates prerequisites for overcoming the majority, if not all, contradictions of world development, leaving the level of society "universal benefits."
Numerous sociological theories were created in the course of technocratism. public Development, among which the concepts of industrial and post-industrial society, postulating the positive role of scientific and technological progress, received the greatest fame. From this point of view, the concept of "quality of life", prosperity, harmony and stable existence are inseparable from the growth of material well-being, development of equipment and technology. However, the crisis environmental consequences, technical and ethical "side effects" of scientific and technological progress, manifested in the 1960s, were forced to doubt the welfare of the chosen path, the revision of the values \u200b\u200bof unlimited consumption began, which led in some cases to technophobia.
However, the technocratism of the Western consciousness was rejected within the framework of the philosophy of "Critical Humanism" (M. Heidegger, K. Yaspers, Markuse, etc.) for the absolutment of the rational and technological orientation, in the process of which the personality loses the integrity, turning into a "partial person" . The yield was offered in the "spiritual revolution", release from the "demon of the technology", in identifying "human in man."
The radical transformation of a modern philosophical view on world development in the framework of solving more and more ureting environmental problems occurred in the early 70s, when the idea of \u200b\u200bgrowth limits was formulated, the predictive "environmental collapse" for the civilization of the future while maintaining modern landmarks. It was from that time that the modern philosophy of ecologism - a worldview, emanating from the defining status of the problem of human relationships and the biosphere in the dynamics of the civilization process, began to form. If in the 70s Philosophical ecologism had a pessimistic shade, then in the 80s. Optimistic realism began to prevail due to the fact that the ambiguity of the phenomenon of the "technological demon" was revealed, which, on the one hand, is truly dangerous, including socio-ecological, processes, and on the other - along with the improvement of the spiritual potential of the person opens The path to real overcoming the contradictions of a global scale.
Summing up this, it should be noted that the true knowledge of Being in the period of unprecedented global changes, when the rethinking of the essence of human relations, society and nature is required, the exit to another level of generallylanet development, it is impossible not to confront ideas, but their interaction. And it is the relationship between the religious and philosophical interpretation of being that can create prerequisites for an adequate response to the question of the positive directions of the development of civilization.
3.2 Basic principles of environmental technologies
At the present stage of development of society, the development of a scientific awareness of the unity of society and nature is stimulated by the need for practical support of such unity. In essence, the task of environmentalization techniques, optimal coordination with natural
During the long years of industrial development, one-sided inertia of the development of technology in environmentally carefree mode is gained, and the transition to a qualitatively new mode sometimes seems simply impossible. In addition, the measures taken so far, the environmentalization measures radically do not solve problems, but only pull it out of its true overcoming. The struggle against pollution of the natural environment is carried out mainly by the construction of wastewater treatment plants, and not by changing the existing production technology. However, there are not enough of these measures to solve the problem.
Requirements for the degree of purification of production waste will be continuously increased as the number and capacity of enterprises is heard. In some unique natural complexes, such as Baikal, for example, the requirements for the effectiveness of wastewater treatment facilities are already very high. According to experts, the water treatment facilities of the Baikal pulp and paper plant do not satisfy these requirements, although the cost of structures is large and is 25% of the value of the plant itself. Consequently, the current main method of environmentalization of technology becomes economically inappropriate and environmentally ineffective. There was a contradiction between the old type of production technology and new environmental protection requirements.
Equipment of modern production with sewage treatment plants should be considered only as a stage, although very important, on the way of improving environmental management. Simultaneously with this stage, you need to move to the next, more important and radical stage - the restructuring of the type of production technology itself. It is necessary to move towards waste-free production with the most complete utilization of the entire complex of substances entering the production and consumer system from the mining and harvesting industries.
Such technology requires a complete restructuring of production based on the creation of territorial production complexes. In these complexes, all the variety of production types should be linked to the waste of one type of enterprises serve as raw materials for other species and so to the most complete disposal of all substances without exceptions entered into the system at the entrance.
Modern production is organized with a violation of system principles. The ratio of the substance mined and used in the production process (98% and 2%, respectively) indicates that the processes of obtaining a substance and energy from the environment clearly took the top of the recycling processes of the seized substance. Thus, the environmental crisis is programmed in the existing production technology.
But this does not follow that the technique is in principle incompatible with natural processes. It is fully compatible with them, but provided that production be built in accordance with the laws of systemic integrity of self-regulating systems.
An approximate analogue of such an organization of metabolic processes of substance and energy can be natural biogeocenoses and biosphere as a whole. As in biogeocenoses, the diversity of the types of organisms causes the possibility of a closed cycle in the movement of the substance and energy, and in the social production of the very variety of its species serves as an important prerequisite for ensuring the closetness of the contours of technological processes.
Go to qualitatively new technology Production with a closed cycle of the use of a substance will allow dramatically to reduce the consumption of materials from the environment. With the exception of small losses as a result of dispersion, spraying, etc. All substance with new technology will circulate in a social environment, and new amounts of substances will be required only for extended reproduction and compensation of inevitable losses, i.e. Approximately as in wildlife. If wildlife from the very beginning got up on the same path of using the substance, which man went, then from all the vast masses of our planet at the existing biogenic pace of migration of the elements would not have left anyway. The method of overcoming the contradiction between the increase in the intensity of metabolic processes in wildlife and the limited amount of substance in the inanimate nature of the planet has become cymps of the substance. Public production should also obey the principle of the substance cycle.
3.3 Ecotechnology - the basis of the transition to the noospherictype of civilization
Perestroika production technology on an environmental basis is the following stage of improving environmental management after a stope of protection of nature based on traditional technology. For brevity, the traditional technology in its attitude to nature can be called "servotechnology" (i.e., involving the protection of nature with additional tech-systems), and a new technology that is organically agreed with natural processes and therefore does not need a parallel environmental technique - " ecotechnology. "
From servotechnology to ecotechnology - such is the main way to improve environmental management.
The social relations of modern civilization are not able to ensure the implementation of the necessary technological revolution in the amount and in the direction of which are required to transition to ecotecology. Note two reasons for this. Ecotechnology suggests:
Linking and planned regulation of the entire totality of production links;
A qualitatively other incentive of the economy (not the maximum profit, but planned accounting for the need. The measurements and environmental requirements regardless of the magnitude of the profits). Such an incentive is possible, only in the conditions of an economy based on a different value system and developing directly in the interests of people, and not indirectly through the provision of profits. Ecotechnology is compatible only with the same society, where the direct goal of production is not the maximum profit, but the interests of all people, their health and happiness.
Ecotechnology will remove a number of restrictions on the development of production, which arose in modern conditions, and above all restrictions on the nature of the environment. However, this does not mean that all the limitations of technical order will be removed. Sooner or later, new restrictions will appear, for the removal of which the technological revolution will be required, and as long as society and its production will be existed. In the light of the above, it becomes clear to the freeness of disputes about whether there is the limits of the growth of social production or not.
The growth limits, of course, is, but they exist at all, but specifically for each social system and for each specific level of development of production technology. Obviously, the existing production technology is generally close to the limit values \u200b\u200bof their growth in this capacity. Studies of the Roman Club unequivocally showed it.
With reasoning about the limits of economic growth, the issue of population is directly connected. Can the population of the earth grow infinitely? Not. For each specific social system and a qualitatively defined nature of the production technology, there can be a completely defined optimal level of the population. This level can be calculated on the basis of accounting for real potentials of social production and natural environment. It can be assumed that for the future society the problem of the population will not be. But today the problem of the population is very acute and, first of all, because the technical civilization has reached the limit of its development, creating an excessive population by virtue of both social and natural, but not food reasons.
Demographic problems are complicated primarily with outdated national and religious traditions in combination with spontaneity in the distribution and use of labor resources, on the one hand, and contrasts in the distribution of national wealth - on the other. Excessive growth of the population, which are primarily different, as a rule, underdeveloped countries are not fatal. The experience of the history of industrialized countries shows that as the culture and literacy of the population, the development of industrial potential and the involvement of women in study and production activities, the fertility, as a rule, begins to decrease, coming to some very modest value. This is a general trend in the dynamics of population. .
Thus, the necessary harmony of relations of society and nature can be ensured in the process of immediate transition to the new stage of the scientific and technical revolution, the main content of which should be a fundamental change in the position of the person in the Society-Nature system, just as the modern stage of the scientific and technical revolution Abruptly changed the position of the employee in the system of "technique". The overall trait of both stages of the scientific and technical revolution is that the role of a person in technical and natural processes is significantly increasing.
In the process of deploying a new stage of the scientific and technical revolution, much broader application, the earlier, will find the biological principles of production processes up to the transition to industrial photosynthesis outside of plants. Thus, humanity will be the second autotrophom on the planet with that, however, the difference that people will learn to use the energy of the Sun with a much higher efficiency than plants.
For people, as leading their origin from heterotrophic organisms, i.e. Food at the expense of others and depend on them, there is a single possibility of overcoming this dependence by moving to autotrophility. But in contrast to plants, they must gain such an ability to consciously through the use of scientific knowledge and technicians, asking them the appropriate direction.
For clarity, we will imagine the ratio of the development trends of modern social development with those processes that are characteristic of the natural ecological pyramid, each of the levels of which shows the ratio of the power supply chains of various types of organisms.
Anthropogenic development is extended in the process of its resource supply over the ecological pyramid, which has established long before the emergence of a person on Earth. The pattern of this natural pyramid is the attitude of each next power link to the previous one in the proportion of 1:10.
This ratio clearly withstood in nature the law of natural selection up to the appearance of a person who, applying artificial methods of its resource support, succeeded in a significant change in the ecological pyramid, setting it a tendency of unnatural expansion from the cone up.
Humanity tends to expanded reproduction of the population and everything necessary to ensure it at the expense of the biosphere until its fulfillment. Modern society is already 10 times higher than the possibility of the biota of the planet.
To overcome the natural restrictions of the biosphere, people need to either move to a reduction in their bioc and technomasses to fit into the natural law of proportional ratios of power links (1:10), or take measures to ensure the transition of humanity to autotrophility, and thus remove excess anthropogenic load on Biosphere.
The universal use of biophysical and biochemical patterns in production will allow radically transforming all the future technology. The predominant development will be obtained by unmamaric production that does not know harmful waste. Instead, semi-finished products will be extremely necessary for the following links. Naturally, such production will be completely silent and will not be accompanied by harmful radiation. It will fully comply with the environment and the psychophysical organization of the person himself.
It is difficult to imagine that the technology can change so radically, and nevertheless it will be so. Moreover, this will happen in some distant future, but rather soon, judging by some signs in the development of modern science and technology. Academician N.N. Semenov believed that "all these features will be closely related to the prospects that will open studies of the end of the XX and early XXI in ". Apparently the most important technical condition The transition to a completely new type of production will be fundamentally different energy orientation on mainly the immediate use of solar energy.
Thus, the modern scientific and technological revolution is the first link (prelude) of a more substantial and indigenous coup in the entire system of technology and public relations in general. You can call this coup with a new scientific and technical revolution or a new stage of the Deployment of the HTR.
"Noosphere, covering its unity natural and social environment, will be a comfortable inhabitant for humanity and the condition of the free development of all human abilities. From the cradle of mankind, land with its environment will turn into a reliable and desired house for each of its members."
3.4 Technical and technological component concept
sustainable development
Humanity enters a new era of its history. The most characteristic of its sign is the emergence of global problems. For the first time in history, the situation arose when humanity may rally on a basis, as ensuring the global security of modern civilization.
In the 70s and 1980s. Xx in. In foreign literature in the field of economics, ecology, sociology and other humanitarian sciences, the term "Sustainable Development" was widespread, which was marked by socio-economic and environmental development, aimed at preserving peace throughout the planet, for reasonable satisfaction of people's needs while improving the quality of life. now living and future generations, on the careful use of the resources of the planet and the preservation of the natural environment.
In June 1972, at the UN Conference on the Environment in Stockholm, in addition to many important documents, a sustainable development concept was formulated. The basis of this concept is the fact that if three-quarters of the population of the Earth, now living in underdeveloped countries, will go on the same way of development of the industry as the inhabitants of developed countries, the Planet Earth will obviously will not endure such a load and hit an inevitable ecological catastrophe. At the same time, it is impossible to blame underdeveloped countries in the desire to increase the standard of living of the rapidly growing population. In world politics today, the tendency of the economically prosperous quarter of the population of the Earth is clearly traced, at least temporarily, acute environmental problems by freezing the economic growth of the poorest three quarters. Expressing the opinion of very influential circles, many politicians and scientists developed countries suddenly spoke about the wasteful consumption of natural resources by the population of the Earth, but they offer a hungry diet to everyone besides themselves. In reality, environmental problems cannot be solved without solving socio-economic. "Ecology without economics is a universal poverty"
The concept of long-term sustainable development can be analyzed in different aspects, but we are interested in the role of technical progress in sustainable development. The relevant principles of the environmental aspect of the concept of sustainable development can be formulated as follows:
Ensuring the coevolution of society and nature, man and biosphere, restoration of relative harmony between them, the focus of all transformations on the formation of the noosphere;
Maintaining real capabilities not only for the current, but also for future generations to meet their basic vital needs;
Theoretical development and practical implementation of methods for efficient use of natural resources;
Ensuring the environmental safety of noospheric development;
Deploying at first low-speed, and then loose-free production on a closed cycle, the thoughtful development of biotechnology;
A gradual transition from energy based on organic fuel combustion to alternative energy using renewable energy sources (sun, water, wind, biomass energy, underground heat, etc.).
Conclusion
The entire previous story can be viewed in an environmental sense as the process of accumulating the accumulation of those changes in science, technology and in the environmental state, which eventually turned into a modern environmental crisis. The main sign of this crisis is a sharp qualitative change in the biosphere, which has occurred over the past 50 years. Moreover, not so long ago, the first signs of the process of outstanding the environmental crisis in an ecological catastrophe appeared when the processes of irreversible destruction of the biosphere begin.
The environmental problem put mankind before choosing a further path of development: whether he still-oriented production-oriented production or this growth should be agreed with the real possibilities of the natural environment and the human body, commensurate not only with the closest, but also with remote social development goals.
In the emergence and development of the environmental crisis, a special, determining role belongs to technical progress. In fact, the emergence of the first labor instruments and the first technologies led to the beginning of anthropogenic pressure on nature and the emergence of the world's first provoked environmental cataclysms. With the development of technogenic civilization, an increase in the risk of environmental crises and the weighting of their consequences took place.
The source of such relationship is the person who is at the same time is a natural being, and a carrier of technological development.
However, despite such "aggressiveness", it is technical progress that can be a pledge of human output from a global environmental crisis. The creation of new technologies of low-waste, and then waste-free production on a closed cycle will provide a sufficiently high standard of living without disturbing fragile environmental equilibrium. A gradual transition to alternative energy will save clean air, stops catastrophic incineration of atmospheric oxygen, eliminate thermal pollution of the atmosphere.
Thus, technical progress, as a double-mounted Yanus, has two opposite hatches in the picture of the present and future humanity. And only from the collective human mind, from the thoughtfulness and coherence of the actions of governments, educational and public organizations of the whole world, which the face of technical progress will see our descendants, they will curse us, or will be thrilled.
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This principle was formulated at the Conference of Ecologists of the World Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
Topic: Item, Tasks, History of Social Ecology
Plan
1. Concepts "Social Ecology"
1.1. The object, tasks of ecology.
2. Formation of social ecology as science
2.1. Evolution of man and ecology
3. Place of social ecology in the system of sciences
4. Social Ecology Methods
Social ecology is a scientific discipline that considers the relationship in the Society-Nature system, which studies the interaction and relationship between human society with the natural environment (Nikolai Reimers).
But this definition does not reflect the specifics of this science. Social ecology is currently being formed as a private independent science with a specific subject of research, namely:
the composition and features of the interests of social layers and groups operating natural resources;
perception of various social layers and groups of environmental problems and measures to regulate environmental management;
accounting and use in the practice of environmental measures of the features and interests of social layers and groups
Thus, social ecology is the science of the interests of social groups in the field of environmental management.
Tasks of social ecology
The purpose of social ecology is to create the theory of the evolution of the relationship between human and nature, logic and methodology for converting the natural environment. Social ecology is designed to understand and help overcome the gap between man and nature, between humanitarian and natural scientific knowledge.
Social ecology as a science should establish scientific laws, certificates of objectively existing necessary and significant relationships between phenomena, the signs of which are general, the constancy and possibility of their foresight, it is necessary to thus formulate the basic laws of the interaction of elements in the Society - Nature system to allowed to establish a model of optimal interaction of items in this system.
Installation of social environmental laws should first indicate those of them that proceeded from the understanding of society as an environmental subsystem. First of all, these are laws that in the thirties were formulated by Bauer and Vernadsky.
First law It suggests that the geochemical energy of living matter in the biosphere (including humanity as the highest manifestation of living matter, endowed with the mind) tends to the maximum expression.
Second Law It contains a statement that during evolution there are those types of living beings that increase their biogenic geochemical energy to their livelihoods.
Social ecology identifies the patterns of the relationship between nature and society, which are equally fundamental, as well and patterns are physical. But the complexity of the subject of the research, which includes three qualitatively different subsystems - non-fat and wildlife and human society, and the short time of the existence of this discipline lead to the fact that social ecology, at least at present, mainly empirical science, and it formulated by it Patterns are extremely general aphoristic statements (such as "laws" of Commemor).
Law 1. Everything is connected with everything. This law postulates the unity of the world, he tells us about the need to look and study the natural origins of events and phenomena, the occurrence of their chains, the stability and variability of these connections, the appearance of breaks and new links in them, stimulates to study these breaks to heal, as well as predict the course of events .
Law 2. Everything must go somewhere. It is easy to see that this is essentially simply rephrased by the well-known conservation laws. In the most primitive form, this formula can be interpreted as follows: Matter does not disappear. The law should be distributed to the information and the spiritual. This law aims us to study the environmental trajectories of the movement of nature elements.
Law 3. Nature knows better. Any major human intervention in natural systems is harmful to her. This law seems to separate a person from nature. Its essence is that everything that has been created before man and without a person is a product of long trial and errors, the result of a complex process based on factors such as abundance, ingenuity, indifference to individuals with a comprehensive desire for unity. In its formation and development, nature has developed a principle: what is going, then it is understood. In nature, the essence of this principle is that not a single substance cannot be synthesized if there is no means to destroy it. This is based on the entire cyclic mechanism. The person in its activity does not always provide for this.
Law 4. Nothing is given in vain. In other words, you have to pay for everything. Essentially, this is the second law of thermodynamics, talking about the presence in the nature of fundamental asymmetry, i.e., unidirectionalities of all spontaneous processes occurring in it. In the interaction of thermodynamic systems with the environment, there are only two ways to transmit energy: heat and operation. The law suggests that in order to increase its internal energy, natural systems create the most favorable conditions - they are "duties" do not take. All the work produced without loss can go to heat and replenish the internal energy of the system. But, if we do the opposite, that is, we want to work at the expense of the internal energy of the system, i.e., through the warmth, we must pay. All the warmth turn into work is impossible. Any heat machine (technical device or natural mechanism) has a refrigerator, which, as a tax inspector, collects duty. Thus, the law states that you can not live for free.Even the most common analysis of this truth shows that we live in debt, as we pay less than the real value of the goods. But, as you know, the growth of debt leads to bankruptcy.
The concept of the law is interpreted by a majority of methodologies in the sense of unambiguous causal relationships. A wider interpretation of the concept of law as a diversity limitations gives cybernetics, and it is more suitable for social ecology that detects the fundamental limitations of human activity. It would be ridiculous to put forward as a gravitational imperative that a person should not jump from a high height, because death in this case waits inevitably. But the adaptive capabilities of the biosphere, allowing to compensate for the violation of environmental patterns to achieve a certain threshold, make environmental imperatives necessary. The main one can be formulated as follows: the conversion of nature must comply with its adaptation capabilities.
One way to formulate socio-environmental patterns is the transfer of them from sociology and ecology. For example, as the basic law of social environment, the law of compliance of the productive forces and production relations of the state of the natural environment, which is a modification of one of the laws of political economy. The patterns of social ecology proposed on the basis of the study of ecosystems, we will consider after familiarization with the environment.
Formation of social ecology as science
In order to better present the subject of social ecology, it should be considered the process of its occurrence and design as an independent sector of scientific knowledge. In fact, the emergence and subsequent development of social ecology were a natural consequence of the increasing interest of representatives of various humanitarian disciplines ¾ of sociology, economic science, political science, psychology, etc., ¾ to the problems of human interaction and the environment.
The appearance of Temin "Social Ecology" is obliged to American researchers, representatives of the Chicago School of Social Psychologists ¾ R. Parkand E. Berjesu,for the first time, the authors used him in its work for the first time in 1921 in 1921. The authors used him as a synonym for the concept of "human ecology". The concept of "social ecology" was intended to emphasize that this context is not about biological, but about the social phenomenon, which, however, is biological characteristics.
In our country, by the end of the 70s, conditions also developed for the allocation of social and environmental issues into an independent direction of interdisciplinary research. A significant contribution to the development of domestic social ecology has been made , and etc.
One of the most important problems facing the researchers at the present stage of the formation of social ecology is the development of a single approach to understanding its subject. Despite the obvious progress achieved in the study of various aspects of human relations, society and nature, as well as a significant number of publications on social and environmental issues, which appeared in the past two to three decades in our country and abroad, on the issue of What exactly studies this branch of scientific knowledge still exist different opinions. In the School Directory "Ecology" and two options for the definition of social ecology are given: in a narrow sense, under it, the science "On the interaction of human society with the environment",
and in a broad ¾ science "On the interaction of a separate person and human society with natural, social and cultural media." It is clear that the speech in each of the presented cases of interpretation is about various sciences applying for the right to be called a "social environment". No less significant comparison of the definitions of social ecology and human ecology. According to the same source, the latter is defined as: "1) Science on the interaction of human society with nature; 2) the ecology of the human person; 3) Ecology of human populations, including the doctrine of ethnic groups. " Almost complete identity of the definition of social ecology, understood by "in a narrow sense", and the first version of the interpretation of human ecology is noticed. The desire for the actual identification of these two sectors of scientific knowledge is indeed characteristic of foreign science, but it is quite often exposed to the criticism of domestic scientists. In particular, indicating the feasibility of breeding social ecology and human ecology, limits the subject of the last consideration of the socio-hygienic and medical and genetic aspects of human relations, society and nature. With a similar interpretation of the ecology of a person with a solidarity, and some other researchers, but categorically disagree, and, in the opinion of which, this discipline covers a significantly wider range of anthroposystem issues (considered at all levels of its organization ¾ from individual to humanity as a whole) with biosphere, as well as with the internal biosocial organization of human society. It is easy to note that such an interpretation of the human ecology object actually equates it to social ecology, understood in a broad sense. This situation is largely due to the fact that there is currently a stable tendency to bring the approximation of these two disciplines, when the interpenetration of objects of two sciences and their mutual enrichment is observed due to the sharing of empirical material accumulated in each of them, as well as methods and technologies of socio-ecological and anthropoecological studies.
Today, an increasing number of researchers tend to expand the interpretation of the subject of social ecology. So, according to, the subject of studying the modern social ecology, understood by him as private sociology, are specific links between man and their habitat.The main tasks of social ecology on the basis of this can be determined as follows: studying the effect of habitat as a totality of natural and public factors per person, as well as the influence of a person on the environment, perceived as a framework of human life.
A somewhat different, but not contradictory, the interpretation of the subject of social ecology gives and. From their point of view, social ecology as part of the human ecology is a complex of scientific sectors studying the relationship of public structures (starting from the family and other small public groups), as well as the connection of a person with a natural and social environment of their habitat.Such an approach seems to us more correct, for it does not limit the subject of social ecology by the framework of sociology or any other individual humanitarian discipline, and it emphasizes its interdisciplinary.
Some researchers in determining the subject of social ecology are inclined to emphasize the role that this young science is designed to play in harmonizing the relationship between humanity with their habitat. According to, social ecology should first of all the laws of society and the nature, under which he understands the laws of self-regulation of the biosphere, implemented by a person in his vital activity.
The history of the emergence and development of environmental representations of people is rooted in deep antiquity. Knowledge of the environment and the nature of relationships with it have gained practical significance at the dawn of the human type.
The process of becoming a labor and public organization of primitive people, the development of their mental and collective activities created the basis for awareness not only the very fact of its existence, but also for an increasing understanding of the dependence of this existence, both from the conditions within its public organization and external natural conditions. The experience of our distant ancestors is constantly enriched and passed from generation to generation, helping a person in his daily struggle for life.
Approximately 750. thousand years agopeople themselves learned to breed the fire, equip primitive dwellings, mastered ways to protect against weather and enemies. Thanks to these knowledge, the person was able to significantly expand the areas of his habitat.
Beginning with 8th millennium BC e.in Front Asia, various methods of processing Earth and growing crops begin to practice. In the countries of Central Europe, this kind of agrarian revolution occurred in 6 ¾ 2nd millennia BC e.As a result, a large number of people moved to a settled lifestyle, in which there was an urgent need for deeper climate observations, in the ability to predict the change of the seasons and weather changes. By the same time, the discovery of the dependence of weather phenomena from astronomical cycles.
Of particular interest thinkers Ancient Greece and Rome Show the origin and development of life on Earth, as well as to identify bonds of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. So, ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician and astronomer Anaxagor (500.¾428 BC er) He put forward one of the first theories of the origin of the world famous at that time and inhabiting his living beings.
Ancient Greek philosopher and doctor EmPedocl (approx. 487¾ ok. 424s. BC er) More attention paid a description of the process of the emergence and subsequent development of earthly life.
Aristotle (384 ¾322 BC er) Created the first of the known animal classifications, and also laid the foundations of descriptive and comparative anatomy. Defending the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of nature, he argued that all the more advanced species of animals and plants occurred from less perfect, and those, in turn, lead their pedigree from the most primitive organisms arising from once by self-religion. The complication of the organisms of Aristotle considered the consequence of their inner aspiration for self-improvement.
One of the main problems that occupied the minds of ancient thinkers was the problem of the relationship between nature and man. The study of various aspects of their interaction amounted to the subject of the scientific interests of the ancient Greek researchers of Herodotus, Hippocrat, Plato, Eratosthene, and others.
Peru of the German philosopher and thewoman Alberta Bolshesttsky (Albert Great)(1206280) belongs to several natural science treatises. The writings "On Alchemistry" and "On Metal and Minerals" contain statements about the dependence of the climate from the geographical latitude of the place and its position above sea level, as well as about the relationship between the inclination of the sun's rays and the heating of the soil.
English philosopher and naturalist Roger Bacon(1214294) argued that all organic bodies represent various combinations of the same elements and liquids, of which the bodies are inorganic.
The occurrence of the Renaissance is inextricably linked with the name of the famous Italian painter, sculptor, architect, scientist and engineer Leonardo Da Vinci(1452¾1519). He considered the main task of science. The establishment of patterns of nature phenomena, based on the principle of their causal, the necessary communication.
End XV ¾ beginning of the XVI century. The right of the era of great geographical discoveries is called. In 1492, the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus discovered America. In 1498, Portuguese Vasco da Gama He reized Africa and by sea reached India. In 1516 (17?) G. Portuguese travelers first reached China by sea. And in 1521, Spanish navigators led by Fernian Magellan. Made first trip around the world. Having reopening southern America, they reached East Asia, after which they returned to Spain. These travels were an important stage in expanding the knowledge of Earth.
Jordan Bruno(1548¾1600) made a significant contribution to the development of Copernicus, as well as in the exemption from shortcomings and limitedness.
The offensive of a fundamentally new stage in the development of science is traditionally associated with the name of the philosopher and logic Francis Becona(156121626), which has developed inductive and experimental methods of scientific research. The main goal of science he proclaimed an increase in the human power over nature.
At the end of the XVI century. Dutch inventor Zakhariya Jansen(lived and the XVI century) created the first microscope, which allows to obtain images of small objects, enlarged using glass lenses. English naturalist Robert Guk(1635¾1703) The microscope has significantly improved (its device gave a 40-fold increase), with which the plant cells first observed, and also investigated the structure of some minerals.
French naturalist Georges Buffon(1707888), author of 36-languid "natural history", expressed his thoughts on the unity of the animal and plant world, about their vital activity, distribution and communication with the habitat, defended the idea of \u200b\u200bthe variability of species under the influence of environmental conditions.
Major event XVIII century. The appearance of the evolutionary concept of the French natural scientist Jean Batista Lamarcka(174421829), according to which the main reason for the development of organisms from lower forms to the highest is the inherent desire to improve the organization, as well as the influence of various external conditions on them.
A special role in the formation of ecology was played by the works of the English naturalist Charles Darwin(180921882), which created the theory of origin of species by natural selection.
In 1866, a German zoologist-evolutionist Ernst Geckel(1834¾1919) In its work, the "general morphology of organisms" proposed the whole range of issues related to the problem of the struggle for the existence and influence on the living beings of a complex of physical and biotic conditions, to name the term "ecology".
Evolution of man and ecology
Long before the individual directions of environmental research found independence, there was an obvious trend towards the gradual consolidation of environmental learning objects. If initially, single individuals, their groups, specific biological species, etc. were initially as such, then over time they were complemented by large natural complexes, such as "biocenosis", the concept of which was formulated by a German zoologist and hydrobiologist
K. Mebiusback in 1877 (the new term was called upon to signify the totality of plants, animals and microorganisms inhabiting relatively homogeneous living space). Shortly before that, in 1875, Austrian geologist E. Zyussfor the notation of the "film of life" on the surface of the Earth, the concept of "biosphere" was proposed. Significantly expanded and concretized this concept Russian, the Soviet scientist in his book "Biosphere", which saw the light in 1926 in 1935. English botany A. Tensleyintroduced the concept of "ecological system" (ecosystem). And in 1940, the term "biogeocenosis" was introduced by the Soviet Botany and Geographer, which he proposed to signify the elementary unit of the biosphere. Naturally, the study of such large-scale comprehensive entities required the unification of the research efforts of representatives of various "special" ecology, which, in turn, would be almost impossible without coordinating their scientific categorical apparatus, as well as without developing general approaches to the organization of the research process itself. Actually, it is precisely this necessity and is obliged to apply ecology as a single science, which integrates developing previously independently from each other private substantive ecology. The result of their reunification was the formation of "big ecology" (according to expression) or macroecology (software and), including the following main sections today in its structure:
General ecology;
Human ecology (including social ecology);
Applied ecology.
The structure of each of these sections and the range of problems considered in each of them are shown in Fig. 1. It illustrates the fact that modern ecology is a complex science, a decisive extremely wide range of tasks, extremely relevant at the present stage of the development of society. By the Code for the definition of one of the largest modern ecologists of Yujina Oduma, "ecology¾ this is an interdisciplinary area of \u200b\u200bknowledge, science on the device of multi-level systems in nature, society, their relationships. "
Place of social ecology in the science system
Social ecology is a new scientific direction at the junction of sociology, ecology, philosophy, science, technology and other sectors of culture, with each of which it comes into contacts very closely. Schematically, this can be expressed as follows:
Many new names of sciences were proposed, the subject of which is to study the relationship between a person with a natural environment in their integrity: natural displays, noology, noogenics, global ecology, social ecology, human ecology, socio-economic ecology, modern ecology. Big ecology, etc. Currently, you can talk more or less confident about three directions.
First, we are talking about the study of the relationship between the Company with the natural environment at the global level, on the scale of the planet, in other words, the relationship between humanity as a whole with the biosphere of the Earth. The specific scientific basis of research in this area is the teaching of Vernadsky about the biosphere. This direction can be called a global ecology. In 1977, the monograph "Global Ecology" was published. It should be noted that in accordance with his scientific interests, Budyko paid advantage of climate aspects of a global environmental problem, although no less important topics such as the number of resources of our planet, global pollution indicators of natural medium, global chemical element circuits in their interaction, the effect of space on The land, the state of the ozone shield in the atmosphere, the functioning of the Earth as a whole whole, etc. The studies in this direction suggest, of course, intensive international cooperation.
The second direction of research on the relationship between society with the natural environment will be studies from the point of view of human understanding as a social being. The human relationship to the social and natural surround is correlated. "The limited attitude of people to nature causes their limited attitude towards each other" and their limited attitude towards each other is their limited attitude towards nature "(K. Marx, F. Engels. Op., 2nd ed., Vol. 3, p. 29). In order to separate this direction, studying the attitude of various social groups and classes to the natural environment and the structure of their relationship, determined by the attitude towards natural environment, from the global ecology object, can be called its social environment in a narrow sense. In this The case of social ecology, in contrast to global ecology, is closer to the humanitarian sciences than to natural science. The need for such studies is enormous, and they are still held on a very limited scale.
Finally, the third scientific direction can be considered a human ecology. Its subject, which does not coincide with the objects of global ecology and social ecology in a narrow sense, would be a system of relationship with a natural human environment as an individual. This area is closer to medicine than social and global ecology. By definition, "human ecology is a scientific direction, exploring the patterns of interaction, the problems of targeted management of the preservation and development of public health, improving the type of Homo Sapiens. The task of human ecology is the development of forecasts possible changes In characteristics of human health (population) under the influence of changes in the external environment and the development of scientifically based correction standards in the relevant components of life support systems ... Most Western authors also distinguishes the concepts of Social or Human Ecology (Ecology of human society) and Ecology of MAN (human ecology). The first terms indicate the science, treating the issues of management, forecasting, planning the entire process of "entering" the natural environment in relation to the relationship with society as a dependent and managed subsystem within the Society - Society system. The second term is used for the name of science that makes the emphasis on a person as a "biological unit" (questions of socioecology. Lviv, 1987. p. 32-33).
"The human ecology includes genetic-anatomo-physiological and medical and biological blocks, missing in social ecology. In the latter, according to historical traditions, it is necessary to include significant sections of sociology and social psychology that are not included in the narrow understanding of the human ecology" (there, with . 195).
Of course, the three marked scientific directions are far from enough. The approach to the natural environment as a whole necessary for the successful solution of the environmental problem, implies the synthesis of knowledge, which is seen in the formation of directions in various existing sciences transient from them to ecology.
Environmental issues are increasingly included in social sciences. The development of social ecology is closely related to the tendencies of sociologicalization and humanization of science (natural science, first of all), as well as the integration of the rapidly differentiating disciplines of the ecological cycle with each other and with other sciences are committed in line with general trends towards the synthesis in the development of modern science.
Practice has a dual impact on scientific understanding of environmental problems. The case here, on the one hand, is that converter activity requires an increase in the theoretical level of research of the system "Man - Natural Environment" and strengthening the prognostic power of these studies. On the other hand, it is the practical human activity that provides direct assistance to scientific research. The knowledge of causal relations in nature can advance as it is transformed. The larger projects for the reconstruction of the natural environment are carried out, the more data penetrates into science on the natural environment, the dendirement of causal relations in the natural environment and the ultimately, the theoretical level of research on the relationship between the Company with the natural environment is becoming theoretical level.
The theoretical potential of sciences studying the natural environment in recent years has grown noticeably, which leads to the fact that "now all the sciences about the Earth are somehow moving away from the descriptions and the simplest quality analysis
Materials of observations to the development of quantitative theories built on the physico-mathematical base "(E. K .. Fedorov. The interaction of society and nature. L., 1972, p. 63).
Formerly, the descriptive science is geography - based on the establishment of closer contact between its individual industries (climatology, geomorphology, soil science, etc.) and the improvement of its methodological arsenal (mathematization, the use of the methodology of physicochemical sciences, etc.) becomes constructive geography, Focusing not only and not so much on the study of the functioning of the geographical medium, regardless of a person, how much to theoretical understanding of the prospects for the transformation of our planet. Similar changes occur in other sciences that study certain moments, aspects, etc. The relationship between the person and the natural environment.
Since social ecology is a new factory discipline that is in the process of rapid development, its subject can only be outlined, but not clearly designate. This is typical for every field of knowledge, social ecology is not exceptions. We will understand the scientific direction under the social environment, uniting what is included in the social environment in a narrow sense, into a global ecology and human ecology. In other words, we will be understood under the social environment, scientific discipline, which studies the relationship between human and nature in their complex. This will be the subject of social ecology, although it may not be completely established.
Methods of social ecology
A more complex situation occurs with the definition of the method of social ecology. Since social ecology is transitional science between natural and humanitarian, in its methodology, it should use methods and natural, and humanitarian sciences, as well as those methodologies that are the unity of a natural science and humanitarian approach (the first is called the political, the second is ideographic).
As for the general scientific methods, the familiarization with the history of social ecology shows that at the first stage, a predominantly observation method (monitoring) was used, the simulation method was published on the second to the fore. Simulation is a way of a long-term and complex vision of the world. In modern understanding it is a universal procedure for comprehending and transforming the world. Generally speaking, every person on the basis of his life experience and knowledge builds certain models of reality. Subsequent experience and knowledge confirm this model or contribute to its change and clarification. The model simply represents an ordered set of assumptions about a complex system. This is an attempt to understand some complicated aspect of an infinitely diverse world by choosing from accumulated ideas and experiences of a set of observations applicable to the problem under consideration.
The authors of the "Growth Limits" describe the methodology of global modeling as follows. At first we made a list of important reassembly between variables and outlined the structure of feedback. Then we met literature and consulted with specialists in many areas related to these studies - demographers, economists, agronomists, food specialists, geologists, ecologists, etc. Our goal at this stage was to find the most common A structure that reflects the basic relationships between five levels. The further development of this basic structure on the basis of other more detailed data can be made after the system itself will be understood in its elementary form. Then we quantify every connection so exactly as possible using global data if they were, and characteristic local data, if global measurements were not produced. Using the computer, we determined the dependence of the simultaneous action of all these ties in time. Then we checked the impact of quantitative changes in our major assumptions to find the most critical determinants of the behavior of the system. There is no one "tight" global model. The model as soon as it occurs is constantly criticized and replenished with data as we begin to understand it better. This model uses the most important dependencies between population, food, investment, depreciation, resources and production products. These dependencies are the same all over the world. Our technique is to make a few assumptions about the connections between the parameters, and then check them on the computer. The model contains dynamic statements only on the physical aspects of human activity. It comes from the assumption that the nature of social variables is the distribution of income, the regulation of the size of the family, the choice between industrial goods, services and food - in the future will continue the same as it was throughout the modern history of world development. Since it is difficult to assume what new forms of human behavior should be expected, we did not try to take into account these changes on the model. The value of our model is determined only by the point on each of the graphs that corresponds to the cessation of growth and the beginning of the catastrophe.
As part of the general method of global modeling, various private techniques were used. Thus, the medical group applied the principles of system dynamics, which suggest that the state of the systems is fully described by a small set of values \u200b\u200bcharacterizing various levels of consideration, and its evolution in time - differential equations of 1-order, containing the speed of change of these values, called streams that depend only From the time of the levels themselves, but not from the speed of their changes. The system speaker is dealt with only with exponential growth and equilibrium condition.
The methodological potential of the theory of hierarchical systems applied by Meskarovich and Pestel is much wider, allowing you to create multi-level models. The "cost - release" method, developed and used in Global Modeling B. Leontiev, involves a study of structural relationships in the economy in conditions when "a set on the form of non-related, in reality interdependent flows of production, distribution, consumption and investment constantly affect each other. , and ultimately, determined by a number of main characteristics of the system "(V. Leontyev. Studies of the structure of the American economy.
The "cost-release" method represents validity in the form of a chessboard (matrix) reflecting the structure of intersectoral streams, a field of production, exchange and consumption. The method itself is already a certain idea of \u200b\u200breality, and thus the selected methodology turns out to be essentially associated with a meaningful aspect.
As a model, you can use the real system. So, agrocenoses can be considered as an experimental model of biocenosis. More generally, all human nature conversion activities are modeling that accelerates the formation of the theory, but it should be treated as a model, considering the risk that this activity entails. In the converter aspect, modeling contributes to optimization, i.e., the choice of the best ways to convert natural environment /