What is the difference between natural and artificial classification. Natural and artificial selection, their similarity and differences

Classification is customary to share on naturaland artificial.

Natural classification is the classification of objects according to important, significant features for them.

Artificial classification is the classification of objects on secondary, irrelevant signs.

Examples of artificial classifications can serve as a classification of books in the library according to the alphabet, classification of lawyers for growth, etc.

Classifications are widely used in science, and naturally, the most complex and perfect of them are found here.

A brilliant example of a scientific classification - a periodic system of elements D.I. Mendeleeva. It fixes the patterns between chemical elements And sets the place of each of them in a single table. By summing up the previous development of chemistry of elements, this system laid the beginning of a new period in their study. She allowed to make fully confirmed forecasts regarding unknown even elements.

The classification of plants of the Swedish biologist K. Linnei plants, which has placed observation objects - elements of living and inanimate nature are strict, based on their clear and specific features. This classification would have to identify the basic principles that determine the structure of the world, and give a complete and deep explanation of nature.

The leading idea of \u200b\u200bLinneia was opposed to natural and artificial classifications. If an artificial classification uses insignificant signs to streamline objects, up to reference to the initial letters of the names of these objects, the natural classification is based on essential features, from which many derivative properties of ordered objects arise. Artificial classification gives very scarce and shallow knowledge about their objects; The natural classification leads them to the system containing the most important information about them.

As the linals believed and his followers, comprehensive natural classifications are the highest goal of studying nature and the crown of her scientific knowledge.

Modern ideas about the role of classifications changed significantly. The opposition of natural and artificial classifications has fallen in many ways. Not always significant manifests clearly separating from a non-essential, especially in nature. The objects studied by science are, as a rule, complex systems of mutually intertwined and interdependent properties. Select the most essential from their number, leaving aside everyone else, most often you can only abstract. In addition, which appear to be significant in one respect, it is usually much less important when it is considered in the other. In addition, the process of comprehending the essence of even a simple object is infinite.

Thus, the role of classification, including natural, should not be overestimated in the knowledge of nature. Especially one should not exaggerate its importance in the field of complex and dynamic social objects. Hope for a comprehensive and based on its completed classification is clear utopia, even if we are talking only about inanimate nature. Live creatures, very complex and in the process of constant change, are extremely difficult to fit even in the headings of the proposed limited classifications are not considered to be the boundaries installed.

Understanding certain artificiality of the most natural classifications and noting even the elements of arbitrariness in them, it should not, however, to fall into another extremes and diminish their importance.

Difficulties with classification have most often an objective reason. The point is not in the insufficient insight of the human mind, but in the complexity of the world around us, in the absence of harsh borders and clearly defined classes. Universal variability of things, their "fluidity" even more complicates and blurs this picture. Therefore, not everything is not always able to clearly classify. The one who is constantly aimed at carrying out clear distinctive lines risks to be in artificial, they themselves created by the world, having little common with dynamic, complete shades and transitions with the real world.

The most difficult object for the classification is, no doubt a person. Types of people, their temperaments, actions, feelings, aspirations, actions, etc. - It is so thin and flowable "matter" that successful attempts by their typology is very rare.

Causes great difficulties to classify people taken in the unity of the properties inherent in them. It is difficult to classify even individuals of the mental life of a person and its activities.

It can be noted that there is no generally accepted natural classification, within which legal norms would be a special case of norms; There is no clear classification of human mental states, in which the distinction between states of physiological and pathological affects has been important for criminal law found its place and justification, etc.

In this regard, it is necessary to emphasize that one should not be unnecessary to classifications that, by its very nature, opposes strict distinctions.

Each person is unique and at the same time has features common with other people. To distinguish one person from the other, we use concepts such as temperament, character, personality. In everyday communication, they have a rather definite meaning and help us understand themselves and others. However, there are no strict definitions of these concepts, and no, respectively, a distinct division of people on temperaments and characters.

The ancient Greeks subdivided into people on cholerics, Melancholikov, Sanguitics and phlegmatic. Already in our time I.P. Pavlov improved this classification and distributed it on all higher mammals. Pavlova cholerich corresponds to a strong excitable unbalanced type, and melancholic is weak; Sanguine is a strong balanced type, and phlegmatic is a strong balanced inert. A strong unbalanced type is inclined to rage, weak - to the fear, for the Sanguinik, the predominance of positive emotions is typically prevailing, and phlegmatic does not discover any turbulent emotional reactions to the surrounding. "An excitable type in his highest manifestation," wrote Pavlov, is mostly aggressive people, the extreme brake TIN is what the cowardly animal is called "

Pavlov himself did not overestimate the value of this classification of temperaments and the capabilities of the CE application to specific people. He spoke, in particular, not only about the four specified types of temperament, but also about the "specially human types of artists and thinkers": the first prevails a figurative-specific signaling system, the second - speech abstract-generalized. In pure form none oftypes of temperament is not possible, perhaps detect anyone.

Artificial classification

Artificial classification

classification, in which the location of the concepts in the classifs. The scheme takes place on the basis of similarity or differences in the objects of concepts in insignificant, although their own, signs. I. K. often plays the role of the initial stage in relation to the natural classification and replaces it until the creature can be opened. bonds of objects. An example of I. K. is Botanich. Linnea, based on such signs, as well as the method of connecting the stamens in the plant flower. Term "I. K." It is often used along with the term "auxiliary", denoting such a construction of classifications. Schemes, with a rum, concepts are located according to their purely external, but it is easily visible signs. This facilitates the search for concepts in the diagram and detection. items. The most common will be asked. Classifications based on the alphabetic location of the names: alphabetical directories in libraries, the location of the names in various lists, etc. See Classification (in formal logic) and lit. With this article.

B. Yakushin. Moscow.

Philosophical encyclopedia. In 5 tons - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinova. 1960-1970 .

Watch what is "artificial classification" in other dictionaries:

Multistage, branched division of the logical volume of the concept. The result of K. is the system of coented concepts: a divisible concept is genital, new concepts with species, types of species (subspecies), etc. The most complex and perfect K. ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

logic classification - Classification logic (from lat. Classis discharge, class and facio do, lay out) a special kind of division (taxonomic or emeoreological) or division system. Taxonomic division is the allocation of the concept of subclasses ...

See Classification. (Source: "Microbiology: Dictionary of Terms", Firsov N.N., M: Drop, 2006) ... Dictionary of microbiology

classification - Classification (from lat. Classis discharge and facere do) such a knowledge system, the concepts of which mean ordered groups, according to which objects are distributed to some object area based on their similarity in certain properties. K. ... ... Encyclopedia of epistemology and philosophy of science

The breakdown of the set of organisms based on their characteristics according to a certain system of hierarchically coented groups - taxa (classes, families, childbirth, species, etc.). Distinguish natural and artificial classification. Natural, or ... ... Dictionary of microbiology

This term has other values, see Neural Network (Values). Scheme of simple neural network. Green color Indicated input neurons, blue hidden neurons, yellow output neurons ... Wikipedia

Request "Neural Network" is redirected here. Cm. Also other values. Scheme of simple neural network. Green marked input elements, yellow output element artificial neural networks (INS) Mathematical models, as well as their software or ... ... Wikipedia

Multistage, branched division of the logical volume of the concept. The result of K. is the system of cozenned concepts: a divisible concept is genital, new concepts with species, types of species (subspecies), etc. The most complex and perfect K. ... ... Dictionary of Terms Logic

Classification of organisms on arbitrarily selected features having a purely applied value. Geological Dictionary: In 2 colors. M.: Nedra. Edited by K. N. Paffengolts and others. 1978 ... Geological Encyclopedia

Remember:

What does systematics study?

Answer. Systematics studies the distribution of living organisms into certain groups (taxa) according to the generality of their structure with the maximum preservation of evolutionary ties.

Why was Karl Lynnea system artificial?

Answer. Linney was the first to create a convenient, accurate and strict system of plants, albeit on the artificial principle. Artificially, it is because when determining the similarity of plants and the classification, they took into account them not all the features of similarity and differences, not a totality of all morphological signs of the plant - a set, which one can determine the true relationship of two forms, and built all its system only on the basis of one Only organ - flower.

Questions after § 27

What is the difference between the natural system from artificial?

Answer. There are two types of classification - artificial and natural. In the artificial classification, they take one or more easily distinguishable signs. It is created and applied to solve practical tasks, when the main thing is the ease of use and simplicity. Linnea classification also refers to the category of artificial, since it did not take into account important natural relationships.

Natural classification is an attempt to use the natural relationship between organisms. In this case, more data is taken into account than in an artificial classification, while not only external, but also internal signs are taken into account. The similarities in embryogenesis, morphology, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, cellular structure and behavior are taken into account.

What is the system of living organisms proposed by K. Dinner? Why?

Answer. The system proposed by K. Linneiem was artificial. It was not kinship of plants, but several external, easily distinguishable signs. The basis of the classification of plants, he put only the structure of the generative bodies. In classification of 1-2 arbitrarily taken features, the plant far in systematic relations were sometimes in the same class, and related - in different. For example, counting the number of stamens in carrots and flax, linen placed them in one group on the grounds that they have five stamens in the flower. In fact, these plants belong to various kinds and families: carrots from the family of umbrella, flax - family of flax. The artificiality of the classification "on the stamens" in many cases is so obvious that it cannot be noticed. In one family of "eight-grayscale", Linnei got buckwheat, male and worsion eyes.

In the 5th grade (5 stamen), carrots were met, Lena, Swan, bell, forget-me-not, currant, Kalina. In the 21st grade near the rickee, the Soyk, birch, oak, nettle and even spruce and pine were meant. Lingonberry, similar to her Toloknik, Blueberry - cousins, but they got into different classes, as they are different than the number of stamens.

But with all his shortcomings, the Linneyevskaya system of plants made it easy to understand in a huge number of species already known to science.

In the similarity and form of the beak, the chicken and ostrich fell into one detachment, while the chicken belong to Kirefrudym, and the ostriches - to Besvylevny, (and in his type of "worms" collected 11 modern types). Its zoological system was built on the principle of "degradation" - from difficult to simple.

K. Linney, recognizing the artificiality of his system, wrote that "the artificial system will exist before creating a natural."

What is a binary nomenclature and what is its meaning for systematics?

Answer. Binary nomenclature - designation of animal species, plants and microorganisms with two Latin words: the first is the name of the genus, the second - species epithet (for example, Lepus Europaeus - Hare Rusak, Centaurea Cyanus - Vasilek blue). When the species is described for the first time, lead in Latin and the name of the author. K. Baugin (1620) is proposed, the basis of Systematics K. Linneiem (1753).

The name of the genus is always written with a capital letter, the name of the species is always with a small (even if it comes from behalf of its own).

Expand the principle of taxon hierarchies on specific examples.

Answer. At the first stage of the classification, experts share organisms into separate groups that are characterized by a certain set of a sign, and then they have them in the correct sequence. Each of these groups in the systematics is called a taxon. A taxon is the main object of the systematics studies, which represents a group of the zoological objects actually existing in nature, which are sufficiently separate. As examples of taxa, such groups as "vertebrates", "mammals", "mammals", "Pardon-", "deer noble" and others are possible.

In the classification of Charles Lynnea, taxa were built into the following hierarchical structure:

Kingdom - Animals

Class - mammals

Drug - Primates

Rod -helovek

View - a reasonable person

One of the principles of systematics is the principle of hierarchy, or coented. It is implemented as follows: close-friendly species are combined into the genus, the genus is combined into families, families in the detachments, detachments in classes, classes in types, and types in the kingdom. The higher the rank of taxonomic category, the less taxa of this level. For example, if the kingdom is one, then the types are already more than 20. The principle of the hierarchy allows you to very accurately determine the position of the zoological object in the system of living organisms. As an example, the systematic position of Belyaka Zaita can be brought:

Kingdom of animals

Type chords

Mammals class

Detachment Towns

Zaitsevaya family

Rod hares

Kind of bang

In addition to the main taxonomic categories in Zoological Systems, additional taxonomic categories are used, which are formed by the addition of relevant consoles to the main taxonomic categories (over-, sub-, infra- and others).

The systematic position of the Belyaka Zaita using additional taxonomic categories will have the following form:

Kingdom of animals

Farming of real multicellular

Type chords

Speed \u200b\u200bvertebral

Four-legged outclass

Mammals class

Subclass of niphelistic

Infrared placental

Detachment Towns

Zaitsevaya family

Rod hares

Kind of bang

Knowing the position of the animal in the system can be characterized by its external and internal structure, features biology. Thus, from the above systematic position of the Belyaka Zaita, you can get the following information, about this form: it has a four-chamber heart, a diaphragm and coat (signs of the mammalian class); In the upper jaw, two pairs of incisors, sweat glands in the skin of the torso are missing (signs of the troop-shadow), the ears are long, the hind limbs are longer than the front (signs of the Zaitsevaya family), etc. This is an example of one of the basic functions of the classification -ProNostic (prediction function, prediction). In addition, the classification performs the heuristic (cognitive) function - represents the material for the reconstruction of the paths of animal evolution and explanatory - demonstrates the results of the study of animal taxa. To unify the work of systematics specialists, there is a significant rules that regulate the process of describing new taxa animals and assigning scientific names to them.

Exist two types of classification - artificial and natural. In artificial classification Based on one or more easily distinguishable signs. It is created and applied to solve practical tasks, when the main thing is the ease of use and simplicity.

Artificial classification There was already a mentioned classification system adopted in ancient China. Linnes of all the drawing organisms combined into one group Vermes. This group includes extremely different animals: from simple round (nematodes) and raindrops to snakes. Linnea classification also refers to the category of artificial, since it did not take into account important natural relationships - in particular the fact that the snakes, for example, there is a spine, and there is no it in the rainwater worm. In fact, the snakes have more in common with other vertebrates than with worms. An example of an artificial classification of fish can be the separation of them on freshwater, marine and fish, inhabiting saltwater reservoirs.

This classification Based on preference by these animals of certain conditions ambient.

Evolutionary tree of life, covering five kingdoms on the classification of Marghelis and Schwartz. Line length does not reflect the duration of the corresponding period.

Such a separation is convenient for studying the mechanisms of aczoregulation. Similar to all organismswhich can be seen using a microscope, called microorganisms, combining them in this way in a single group, convenient for study, but not reflecting natural relationships.

Natural classification - This is an attempt to use the natural relationship between organisms. In this case, more data is taken into account than in an artificial classification, while not only external, but also internal signs are taken into account. The similarities in embryogenesis, morphology, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, cellular structure and behavior are taken into account. Nowadays, they use natural and phylogenetic classifications more often. Phylogenetic classification is based on evolutionary relationships. In this system, according to existing ideas, organisms having a common ancestor are combined into one group.

Phylogeny (Evolutionary history) or other group can be represented as a pedigree tree, such, for example, as shown in the figure.

Along with the already considered classifications There is also a phenotypic classification. Such. classification It is an attempt to avoid the problem of establishing evolutionary kinship, which sometimes turns out to be very difficult and very contradictory, especially in cases where the necessary fossil residues are too small or there are no at all. The word "phenotypic" comes from Greek. Phainomenon, i.e., what we see. " This classification is based exclusively on external, i.e. visible, signs (phenotypic similarity), and all adopted features are considered equally important. The most diverse signs of the body can be taken into account than, the better. And it is very necessary that they reflect evolutionary ties. When a certain number of data is accumulated, they are based on the degree of similarity between different organisms; This is usually done using a computer, since the calculations are extremely complex. The use of computers for this purpose received the name of a numerical taxonomy. Phenotypic classifications are often reminiscent of phylogenetic, although in their creation such a goal is not pursued.

Ecosystems are one of the key concepts of ecology, which is a system that includes several components: a community of animals, plants and microorganisms, a characteristic habitat, a whole system of interrelations, thanks to which the interchanges are carried out by substances and energies.

In science there are several classifications of ecosystems. One of them shares all the well-known ecosystems for two large class: Natural, created by nature, and artificial - those that created a person. Consider each of these classes in more detail.

Natural ecosystems

As noted above, natural, natural ecosystems were formed as a result of the action of the Forces of Nature. For them are characteristic:

• Close relationship of organic and inorganic substances
• Full, closed circle of cycle of substances: Starting from the appearance of an organic matter and ending with its decay and decomposition into inorganic components.
• Sustainability and self-healing ability.

All natural ecosystems are determined by the following features:

• 1. Species structure: The number of each type of animal or plant is governed by natural conditions.
  2. Spatial structure: All organisms are located in a strict horizontal or vertical hierarchy. For example, in a forest ecosystem, tiers are distinguished clearly, in water - the placement of organisms depends on the depth of water.
  3. Biotic and abiotic substances. The organisms that make up the ecosystem are divided into inorganic (abiotic: light, air, soil, wind, humidity, pressure) and organic (biotic - animals, plants).
  4. In turn, the biotic component is divided into producers, consumers and destroyers. Manufacturers include plants and bacteria that are using sunlight and energy create organics from inorganic substances. Consumers are animals and carnivorous plants that feed on this organic. Destroyers (mushrooms, bacteria, some microorganisms) are a crown of the food chain, as they produce a reverse process: the organic is converted into inorganic substances.

The spatial boundaries of each natural ecosystem are very conditional. In science, it is customary to identify these borders with natural outlines of the relief: for example, swamp, lake, mountains, rivers. But in the aggregate, all ecosystems, the lay bioboles of our planet are considered open, as they interact with the environment and with space. In the most general view, the picture looks like this: living organisms are obtained from the environment energy, cosmic and earth substances, and at the exit - sedimentary rocks and gases that are in the end.

All components of the natural ecosystem are closely interconnected. The principles of this connection are for years, sometimes with centuries. But that is why they become so stable, since these ties and climatic conditions and determine the types of animals and plants that live in this area. Any equilibrium impairment in the natural ecosystem may result in its disappearance or attenuation. Such a violation may be, for example, cutting down the forest, extermination of a population of a particular type of animals. In this case, the food chain is immediately disturbed, and the ecosystem begins to "climb".

By the way, the introduction of additional elements in the ecosystem is also able to break it. For example, if a person begins to breed in the chosen ecosystem of animals, which was not originally there. Bright confirmation of this - rabbit breeding in Australia. At first it was profitable, because in such a gracious environment and beautiful for breeding climatic conditionsRabbits began to multiply with incredible speed. But in the end, everything was brightened to the collapse. The inconspicable hordes of rabbits devastated pastures, where sheep grazed. The number of sheep began to decline. And the products from one sheep man gets much more than from 10 rabbits. This case entered even in the saying: "Rabbits ate Australia." It took an incredible effort of scientists and high costs before you managed to get rid of the rabbit livestock. It was not possible to destroy their population in Australia, but their number declined and no longer threatened the ecosystem.

Artificial ecosystems

Artificial ecosystems call the communities of animals and plants living in the conditions that man created for them. They are also called nobodyogocenosis or socioecosystems. Examples: Field, Pasture, City, Society, Spaceship, Zoo, Garden, Artificial Pond, Reservoir.

Most. simple example Artificial ecosystem is aquarium. Here, habitat is limited by the walls of the aquarium, the influx of energy, light and nutrients is carried out by a person, it also regulates the temperature and composition of water. The number of inhabitants is also initially determined.

First feature: all artificial ecosystems are heterotrophici.e. consuming ready-made food. Take the city for example - one of the biggest artificial ecosystems. Here the influx of artificially created energy (gas pipeline, electricity, food) plays a huge role. At the same time, such ecosystems are characterized by a large yield of poisonous substances. That is, those substances that in the natural ecosystem are in the future serve for the production of organications, in artificial often become unsuitable.

One more distinctive feature Artificial ecosystems - an unclosed metabolic cycle. Take for an example of the agro-ecosystem - the most important for humans. These include fields, gardens, gardens, pastures, farms and other agricultural land, on which a person creates conditions for eliminating consumption products. A part of the food chain in such ecosystems a person takes out (in the form of a crop), and therefore the food chain becomes destroyed.

The third difference of artificial ecosystems from natural is their species small. Indeed, a person creates an ecosystem for the sake of removing one (less often several) species of plants or animals. For example, all pests and weeds are destroyed on a wheat field, only wheat is cultivated. This makes it possible to get the best harvest. But at the same time, the destruction of "unprofitable" for the human organisms makes an unstable ecosystem.

Comparative characteristics of natural and artificial ecosystems

A comparison of natural ecosystems and socio-ecosystems is more convenient to present in the form of a table:

Natural ecosystems	Artificial ecosystems
The main component is solar energy.	Basically, it receives energy from fuel, and ready-made food (heterotrophna)
Forms fertile soil	Sleets the soil
All natural ecosystems absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen.	Most artificial ecosystems consume oxygen and produces carbon dioxide
Large species diversity	Limited number of types of organisms
High stability, ability to self-regulation and self-healing	Weak stability, since such an ecosystem depends on human activity
Closed metabolism	Unlocked metabolic chain
Creates habitats of wild animals and plants	Destroys Arealas wildlife
Accumulates water, wisely spending her and cleaning	Large water consumption, its pollution