The history of innovation. Theoretical foundations of innovation and innovation
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE THEORY OF INNOVATION
Original Russian Text © G.V. Grudinin1
Irkutsk State Technical University, 664074, Russia, Irkutsk, st. Lermontov, 83.
The relevance of the historical evolution of the theory of innovation is indicated. The main stages of innovative development are given. Revealed the relationship between the theory of innovative development and the formation of legal protection of intellectual property and its commercialization. Il. 3. Bibliography. 19 titles
Key words: history of innovation; evolution of innovation; innovative development; intellectual property.
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF INNOVATION THEORY G.V. Grudinin
Irkutsk State Technical University, 83 Lermontov St., Irkutsk, 664074, Russia.
The article indicates the relevance of the historical evolution of the theory of innovation. It gives the main of innovative development and reveals the correlation between the theory of innovative stages and the formation of intellectual property legal protection and its commercialization. 3 figures. 19 sources.
Key words: history of innovation; evolution of innovation; innovative development; intellectual property.
In recent years, processes have emerged in the world focused on the development of a new type of economy, where the basis of progress is the production of knowledge, its development and capitalization. Innovative activity is becoming the main direction of investment and concentration of both public and private sectors of the economy.
Different meanings are put into the concepts of innovation and innovative activity depending on the field of application of these terms; disputes about what belongs to them and what does not do not subside both in the scientific and in the legal field. In a broad sense, innovation means something generalizing innovations, often regardless of their fundamentality, depth and scope, as well as their area and scope. Consider some of the wording used in legislative acts:
Innovation is a new or significantly improved product (product, service) or process introduced into use, a new sales method or a new organizational method in business practice, workplace organization or in external relations.
Innovation is the introduction into the use of a new or significantly improved product (product or service) or process, a new marketing method or a new organizational method in business practice, workplace organization or external relations.
In general, these formulations convey the modern meaning of the term innovation, but we will try to focus on the technological part of innovation in the context of historical development and changes. Throughout human history
technological progress played a key role in the development of civilizations. Starting from the processing of stone and the development of fire, agriculture, the invention of the wheel and writing, to the creation of the World Wide Web and deciphering the structure of DNA, discoveries and inventions allow a person to rise to a new stage of evolution. Despite this, the attitude to innovations, inventions and discoveries for many centuries did not find the attention it deserved among contemporaries. We will not take into account the primitive communities and the Ancient World, but since antiquity, when the first works on mathematics, mechanics, astronomy appeared, the innovator was rather an innovator, the influence of science on the life of society was negligible in comparison with religion, military craft, agriculture. In particular, this arises from the opposition of science to technology, in contrast to Ancient China, where, in addition, a different religion allowed for the development of science, invention and innovation for many centuries. In many ways, religious dogmas became a brake on innovation in relation to the scope (mainly the socio-political history of the development of society), the instrument (actions of a religious and moral order) and ethical and moral principles throughout the Middle Ages. The era of renaissance, the secular nature of its culture and anthropocentrism give impetus to rethinking reason, creativity and innovation. These qualities are encouraged, it becomes possible to assess the role of thought and talent in human activity, and its result has the highest value and criterion for assessing society. The subsequent reformation in chronological order and the emergence of Protestantism with its fundamentally
1Grudinin Grigory Vladimirovich, postgraduate student, tel .: 89041119473, e-mail: [email protected] Grudinin Grigory, Postgraduate, tel .: 89041119473, e-mail: [email protected]
With a different attitude to hoarding, work, creativity and entrepreneurship, they have taken a huge step towards the perception of innovation as the most important factor in development. I would like to emphasize precisely the fact that the Protestant work ethic and its characteristic feature - the conduct of commerce not only for the sake of increasing personal consumption, but as a virtuous activity contributed to the beneficial development in the coming era of capitalism.
European encyclopedists of the 18th century. in their works highlighted the importance of the relationship between science and production throughout human history. The French enlightener Jean Condorcet noted in his work "Sketch of the Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind" that "the progress of sciences ensures the progress of industry, which itself then accelerates scientific progress; and this mutual influence, the action of which is constantly renewed, should be ranked among the most active, most powerful reasons for the improvement of the human race. " In the key work of his time, A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, the Scottish economist Adam Smith also finds the following pattern: “With the progress of society, science, or speculation, becomes, like any other occupation, the main or only profession and occupation of a special class of citizens. Like any other occupation, it also falls into a large number of different specialties, each of which brings occupation to a special category or class of scientists; this division of occupations in science, as in any other business, increases skill and saves time. Each individual worker becomes more experienced and knowledgeable in his specialty; in general, more work is being done and scientific advances are increasing significantly. A significant increase in the production of all kinds of objects resulting from the division of labor leads in a society that is properly governed to that general prosperity, which extends to the lowest strata of the people. " Thus, he asserted the importance of science as an engine of progress, recognizing it as an element in the chain of the division of labor, but leaving it with the role, rather, of a function, a secondary factor ensuring the development of production. In our opinion, the importance of this statement should be noted due to the fact that in the 19th century. it was adhered to by the majority of economists, including Karl Marx, who considered the development of the productive forces as the basis, and scientific and technological progress as a superstructure, that is, a consequence, and not the cause of the development of production. Relying on the theoretical and methodological heritage of the classics, creatively comprehending it and reinforcing it with the methods of materialist dialectics and the principle of historicism, Marx continues his study of technological dynamics. In particular, he puts forward and scientifically substantiates the position that the material basis of the medium-term economic cycle is the movement of fixed capital, with the renewal of which, and, consequently, with
activation of innovation and investment processes begins the way out of the next economic crisis. At the same time, Marx interprets innovations as a process that develops in "leaps" during a crisis and depression and slows down at other phases of the cycle. Confirmation of this can be found in his model of the movement of total capital under simple and extended reproduction, which assumes the constancy of the organic structure of capital.
At the same time, an expanded version of the consequences of mass innovations is presented, which are dialectically involved in the consideration of the laws and regularities of the development of society. It is with the massive technological improvements that cause a number of interrelated changes in the productive forces that Marx connects the subsequent adequate changes in the organizational-economic and socio-economic production relations and the transition to a higher formational stage.
Thus, innovation activity was considered in one way or another as an important component of economic development, but its role was rather secondary and was not the subject of a separate and serious economic study. Moreover, historically, innovative activity has not been adequately rewarded and protected by certain rights for many centuries. Considering innovation, one cannot but touch upon this important moment as intellectual property for inventions. We will try to analyze the historical development of this concept.
If we consider the period from antiquity to the late Middle Ages, then we are not even talking about the protection of the results of mental labor. We can only mention the very first case of copyright protection, described by the Greek historian Philark: according to the custom of the ancient province of Sibarius, the chef who invented a new dish received the sole right to prepare it for a year. But in fact, this is an exception that proves the rule. This can partly be explained by the fact that the overwhelming majority of inventors were from the upper classes, and they did not need it. The changes took place in the late Middle Ages, when the first form of intellectual property protection arose - the feudal privilege of invention. Let's highlight its main characteristics:
Issued by the will and grace of the ruler;
Spread to any type of activity (trade, production, invention, etc.);
There was no specific benefit (tax exemption, exclusive right to trade, land allotment, etc.);
Only the novelty in this territory was significant, and it did not matter whether the author was an invention or a person who borrowed it from him.
Since the XII century. privileges spread throughout Europe. They received the greatest development in the Republic of Venice, where the first legal act was issued, regulating the receipt of privileges and the use of an invention. However, since
over time, this method of stimulating technical progress increasingly became a brake on the growth of productive forces. This was due to the following reasons:
1. Feudal monopolies, in fact, turned into a means of unscrupulous enrichment of the court camarilla, at the mercy of which were given the most important types of production (salt, iron, sulfur, paper, glass, etc.). This became the reason for the gouging of prices for essential goods, the flourishing of bribery and speculation under the protection of "royal privileges".
2. Privileges were abused by the workshops. All their activities were based on strict secrecy, and the number of artisans, dedicated to the secret, "remained unchanged with the growing population", which absolutely excluded both the growth of production and the progress of technology. In the eyes of the guild, an innovator-inventor was a dangerous entity who could overnight undermine a complex system of organization, organized with great difficulty and bringing large profits to its members. Therefore, workshops did not support inventors and were often graveyards of ideas.
So the old feudal practice of privileges gradually begins to wither away and new forms of protection of inventions appear - patents.
First, let's look at the fundamental differences between a patent and a privilege:
A patent is issued on the basis of a law that is the same for all;
The patent covers new, unused innovations;
Only inventions can be the subject of a patent.
Based on these differences, it is safe to say that the patent is aimed at the development of technological progress on an equal basis for all.
From a historical point of view, the primacy in the field of patent law belongs to the Republic of Venice. Its Senate (116 votes to 10, with 3 abstentions) on March 15, 1474 adopted the "Venetian Parta", which can be interpreted as the world's first Patent Law. According to this law, every citizen who made a car that had not previously been used on the territory of the state received a privilege, according to which everyone else was prohibited from making such machines for a certain period. It is worth noting that the Italian republics of the Middle Ages did not have royal power and it was precisely a different legal structure that allowed them to get ahead of their neighbors in this matter. For example, in England it was only in 1624 that the Statute on Monopolies was adopted, later called the Magna Carta of the Rights of Inventors. This law is still considered the foundation of English patent law. By comparison, in the Russian Empire in 1812 privileges began to be used, and in 1830 the norms of patent law were introduced.
On March 20, 1883, at an international diplomatic conference in Paris, representatives of 11 countries signed a convention (later
officially named "Parisian", which established the Union for the Protection of Industrial Property. This marked the transition from the system of national (that is, valid only within one country) patents to an international system, in which inventions patented in one member state of the Paris Convention could be protected in all other member countries. The USSR joined the Paris Convention on July 1, 1965.
Thus, the history of the development of intellectual property rights is historically inextricably linked with the development of an attitude towards innovation as a separate concept. It is important to note that with a change in attention to technology and innovation as the engines of progress and the final legalization of intellectual property rights and, accordingly, income from it, an economic category of innovation emerges.
The first to seriously consider innovation as an economic category was J.A. Schumpeter. In his 1911 work "Theory of Economic Development" (German: Theorie der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung), the following main theses can be distinguished:
1. A clear separation of the concepts of economic development and economic growth.
Schumpeter himself devotes great attention to this, trying to explain his vision on this issue as clearly as possible, which is reflected in large and different adjustments and additions in subsequent editions. He understands development as "a special phenomenon, distinguishable in practice and in consciousness, which does not occur among the phenomena inherent in the circulation or the tendency towards equilibrium, but acts on them only as an external force" capable of displacing the circulation of the national economy from a given center of gravity to another. The usual economic growth "does not give rise to new, in a qualitative relation, phenomena, but simply gives an impetus to the processes of their adaptation, just as it happens when natural indicators change."
2. Introduction of the concept of innovation ("implementation of new combinations"), ensuring economic development. It covers the following areas of activity:
making a new one, i.e. still unknown to consumers, good or the creation of a new quality of one or another good;
introduction of a new one, i.e. this branch of industry is still practically unknown, the method (method) of production, which is based on a new scientific discovery and which may also consist in a new method of commercial use of the corresponding product;
development of a new sales market, i.e. such a market in which until now this industry of this country has not been represented, regardless of whether this market existed before or not;
obtaining a new source of raw materials or semi-finished products in the same way, regardless of whether the
whether this source existed before, or was considered inaccessible, or it still had to be created;
carrying out appropriate reorganization, for example, securing a monopoly position (through the creation of trusts) or undermining the monopoly position of another enterprise.
3. The key role of the entrepreneur as the main initiator of innovative transformations.
According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is a subject of economic activity that is least susceptible to the negative effects of fluctuations and recessions in comparison with an economic entity that is firmly fixed in the coordinate system of a static economic formation. An entrepreneur has a great motivation for his activities, he tends to apply new combinations, use new knowledge faster, his activity is more creative under conditions of risk.
Thus, this work gave rise to the theory of innovation and served as a starting point in its subsequent research.
A great contribution to the development of innovations was made by the Soviet economist N.D. Kondratyev. In his main work, "Great cycles of the conjuncture" (1925), he introduces the concept of the same name, also called "long waves". Kondratyev, on the basis of statistical data on the average level of commodity prices, interest on capital, nominal wages, foreign trade turnover, analysis of the production and consumption of coal, as well as pig iron and lead in Britain, France and the United States, considers a certain periodicity of 40-55 years in the rise and the recession of the economy as a whole. The interdependence of these cycles with fluctuations in scientific and technological progress is given: “for about two decades before the start of an upward wave of a large cycle, there is a revival in the field of technical inventions. Before and at the very beginning of the upward wave, there is a widespread application of these inventions in the field of industrial practice, associated with the reorganization of industrial relations. The beginning of large cycles usually coincides with the expansion of the orbit of world economic ties. " Kondratyev also links upward waves with social tension arising in the same time intervals, considering this to be more a consequence than a cause of fluctuations: “both wars and social upheavals are included in the rhythmic process of development of large cycles and turn out not to be the initial forces of this development, but a form of it. manifestations ". In 1939, Schumpeter's work "Business Cycles" was published, in which he positively assessed Kondratyev's work and developed his theory, connecting long waves with short Juglar and Kitchen cycles, thereby developing the ideas of the Soviet economist.
Kondratyev's works based on analytical data made it possible to put forward innovative activity as the main factor of economic recovery over a long period of time.
cyocultural and historical perspective. Friend and like-minded person N.D. Kondratyev, Pitirim Sorokin laid the foundations for the theory of innovation in the socio-cultural sphere, understanding it in a broad sense - not only as art and culture, social and political relations, but also as the dynamics of scientific discoveries and inventions, interstate and civil wars. Published in 1937-1941. in the four-volume "Social and Cultural Dynamics" he investigated, in particular, the tendency of the dynamics of technical invention for more than 5 millennia of the history of society, as well as the largest innovations observed over millennia in other spheres of society. Among the fundamental works of this period should be noted the large monograph of the outstanding English scientist John Bernal "Science in the history of society" (Science in History), published in London in 1954 and in the USSR in 1956. Although the focus of the researcher is the progress of scientific knowledge over all historical epochs, he reveals the inextricable relationship of this progress with the development of technology, starting from the Paleolithic.
The next outstanding scientist who seriously dealt with the problems of the theory of innovation from an economic standpoint is the 1971 Nobel laureate Russian-American economist Simon Kuznets. The works of Schumpeter and Kondratyev, in particular the aforementioned relationship between the development of technology and the economy, had a huge impact on his scientific views. The main topic of his scientific work was a comprehensive study of economic growth at the macro level. On the basis of his research, Kuznets pays special attention to the emergence of fateful, epoch-making innovations, their development and impact on the change of not only technical, but also social life: “we can today follow easily the sequence from the introduction of the passenger car as a mass means of transportation , to the growth of the suburbs, to the movement of the more affluent from the city centers, to the concentration of lower income recipients and unemployed immigrants in the slums of the inner city core, to the acute urban problems, financial and other, and to the trend toward metropolitan consolidation. But the nature and implications of this sequence were certainly not apparent in the 1920 "s, when passenger cars began their mass service function in the United States." at the first stages of implementation, and even the innovators themselves may not assume about their subsequent revolutionary changes by inventions. In addition, Kuznets emphasizes the importance of the development of science as a whole as a factor of economic growth: “Mass application of technological innovations, which constitutes much of the distinctive substance of modern economic growth, is closely connected with the further progress of science, in its turn the basis for additional advance in technology.While this topic is still to be studied in depth, it seems fairly clear that mass-uses of technical innovations (many based on recent scientific discoveries) provide a positive
feedback. Not only do they provide a larger economic surplus for basic and applied research with long time leads and heavy capital demands, but, more specifically, they permit the development of new efficient tools for scientific use and supply new data on the behavior of natural processes under the stress of modification in economic production ".
Another Nobel laureate in economics, Friedrich August von Hayek, an outstanding representative of the Austrian school and the most famous of its members, along with J.A. Schumpeter adheres to the concept of economic liberalism in his works. From his point of view, the state apparatus should create minimal obstacles to the entrepreneur-innovator, it is necessary to develop institutions that encourage competition. According to him, the less rigid and centralized the state administration is, the greater the chances for the development of spontaneous processes of scientific and technological development. As an example, "in imperial China, the most notable of these countries, tremendous advances towards civilization and sophisticated industrial technology occurred in recurring" ages of turmoil "when government control was temporarily relaxed." In addition, he mentions the period of industrialization, which was most active in the city-kingdoms of Italy, southern Germany, the Netherlands and England, where there was a soft power. Nevertheless, Hayek went down in history as the developer of the theory of "diffused knowledge". According to this theory, the knowledge of each individual individual cannot be fully formalized, explained and transferred to another, they are of an irrational, intuitive nature. It is impossible to have all the integrity of the information of the system, being outside it. Hayek puts forward the market as a multidimensional complex mechanism that unites all the diversity of individual knowledge and ensures its unconscious self-organization. Hence the Austrian's hatred of monopoly in all its manifestations. Because the human mind cannot appreciate the entire complexity of the economy, this limitation will only hinder the “invisible hand” of the market. Thus, Hayek's writings provide a better understanding of the complexity of the knowledge economy, the economy of innovation.
The theory of innovation was brought to a fundamentally new level by the German scientist Gerhard Mensch with his 1975 work "Technological stalemate: innovation overcomes depression." The publication released after the oil crisis deservedly attracted the attention of the scientific community. Mensch introduces a classification of innovations:
Basic (contribute to the emergence of new industries and new markets), in turn, are subdivided into technological and non-technological;
Improving (not revolutionary, rather aimed at modernization);
Pseudo-innovations (create only external changes, not constructive ones).
If previous researchers found a link between economic fluctuations and the emergence of innovation
tions, then Mensch introduces the concept of cyclical occurrence of basic innovations, approximately coinciding in duration with Kondratyev's cycles, but ahead of it by 10-20 years, i.e. falling on the period of recession. Thus, a depressed economy launches an innovation process, the author has assigned the term depression trigger effect to this fact. According to Mensch, each long cycle has a shape described by a B-shaped logistic curve describing the trajectory of the life cycle of a given technical method of production. At the final stage of the previous technical basis, a new one appears. The author called this dependence “the model of metamorphosis”. In addition, Mensch introduces the concept of a technological stalemate - stagnation in economic development that occurs when basic changes exhaust their potential. Industrial development is nothing more than a change in technological stalemates. Technological stalemate implies a consistent transition from basic innovations to improving ones, and then to pseudo-innovations. This is explained by the fact that, under generally favorable conditions, market participants will give preference to improving innovations as the least risky, and each subsequent improvement has a weaker effect than the previous one, reaching at its extreme stage to pseudo-innovation, which further leads to a stalemate. A favorable situation arises for the emergence of new basic innovations.
The innovative concept of long waves includes the work of Alfred Kleinknecht and Jacob van Dyck.
In his 1987 work, Innovation in Crisis and Boom, Kleinknecht examines the existence of long-term fluctuations in basic innovations, which he calls “radical”. However, he considers it important to subdivide them into product innovation and technology innovation. Unlike Mensch, who derives the mechanism for the emergence of long cycles from the interaction between basic and improving innovations, including the lowest category of the latter - "pseudo-innovations", sees a similar relationship between innovations in products and technology. Analyzing post-war industry in developed countries from the point of view of this approach, Kleinknecht comes to an interesting observation: the timing of the emergence of product innovations falls on the period of depression, and innovations-technologies - on the stage of increasing wave. This can be explained on the basis of the practice of the fact that during a depression, the strategy of a firm is to minimize risk, and therefore to reject innovation. The most likely, he considers an increase in innovation in the phases of recovery and the beginning of the recovery. Thus, he is at odds with Mensch on this.
The monograph by J. Van Deijn "Long Waves in Economic Life" was published in 1979. A special role in this work is assigned to the formation of infrastructure. Van Dijn identifies it as one of three drivers of fluctuation, along with innovation and the life cycle: “innovation and life
cycles act as a form of functioning of the long-wave mechanism from the side of the release; Infrastructure investment driven by innovation is both a cost driver and an output factor. ” this work caused some controversy, but the importance of introducing infrastructural changes in relation to fluctuations allowed the development of the theory of innovation.
Since the 80s. XX century. comes the next major shift in the theory of innovation. In their works, the authors different countries introduce the concept of "national innovation system" (NIS). The foundation of this concept of NIS was laid by such Western scientists as B. Lundvall (Bengt-Ake Lundvall), K. Freeman, R. Nelson and others.
The recognition of innovation as a key factor in economic development has been outlined above. But a more systematic view of the formation of innovations and processes favorable to this has not yet been.
In 1985, an article by B.-A. Lundwall Product Innovation and User-Producer Interaction, which introduced the concept of an innovation system and presented its concept. But in fact, the first generally recognized and fundamental work in this area is considered the work of K. Freeman 1987 "Technology, Policy, and Economic Performance: Lessons from Japan" (Technology, Policy, and Economic Performance: Lessons from Japan). In this book, the author analyzed the post-war development of Japan, approaching from the point of view of the national innovation system, catalyzing the process of technological development in the country.
The national innovation system is understood as a set of legislative, structural and functional components that ensure the development of innovation in the country.
The structural components of the NIS are organizations of the private and public sector, which, in interaction with each other within the framework of legal and informal norms of behavior, provide and conduct innovative activities on the scale of state
emphasis. These organizations operate in all areas related to the innovation process in research and development, education, production, sales and service of innovations, financing of this process and its legal and legal support.
The concept of NIS has gained a rapid spread not only in economic, but also in political circles, and already in 1993 Finland officially uses it in the work of the Ministry of Science and Technology Policy. Further, in 1997, an international union, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), publishes a review entitled "National Innovation Systems" (No. Aop1 Innovation Systems), which publishes advisory information on recommendations for the formation and functioning of the NIS. Such a rapid recognition of this concept once again proved the awareness of the importance of the formation of state programs in the field of innovation and its recognition as an essential element of development on a global scale.
In parallel with the research of the NIS in the 90s, a modern theory of innovative processes was formed, denoting the transformation of scientific knowledge, ideas into a final product. Roy Rothwell is widely recognized as the author of this theory. In his main work of 1994, Towards the fifth-generation innovation process, he analyzed in detail such an important the present stage problem as the formation of innovative products. He created a classification of models of innovative processes:
1. The “technological push” model (G1) is a linear process from scientific discovery, industrial development, engineering and production activities, marketing to the appearance of a new product or process on the market.
2. Model of "market attraction" (G2) - a linear process from market demand to subsequent development, production and release of the product.
3. The combined model (G3) is a linear process similar to G2, but with feedbacks (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Combined model
4. The model of integrated business processes (04) - shows the formed transition from an exclusively scientific component of innovation to closer interaction with other business processes, as well as a similar convergence between them (Fig. 2).
5. Model of integrated systems and networks (05) - even closer and deeper interaction already at the intersectoral level, which provides greater flexibility and lower costs in creating innovations (Fig. 3).
nii ”, mentioned above, the human mind is limited and it is impossible to learn everything and have all the necessary information. This is completely in line with open innovation.
The current stage in the development of the theory of innovation focuses on the two most important aspects mentioned above:
1. Development of a mechanism of state support for an innovative institutional and infrastructural environment that minimally inhibits the creative potential of innovators and maximally favors
Rice. 2. Model of integrated business processes
Science and technology infrastructure
Competitors
Key CP® Suppliers Consumers
Literature, including patents
Strategic partners, marketing alliances, etc.
Mergers, investors, etc.
Rice. 3. Model of integrated systems and networks
the development of competition and the formation of national breakthrough technologies.
2. Theoretical and applied research in the field of accelerating the timing of the formation of the idea of innovative development and its practical implementation.
Summing up the development of innovations as an economic category over the centuries, we can say that a path has been passed from misunderstanding and obscurity of the authors of many fateful inventions and lack of attention on the part of economists and scientific researchers to innovations to the development of legal protection of intellectual property and recognition of innovation as a flagship. economic development and a major catalyst for progress. At the present stage, innovations are the object of detailed study, ranging from the development process to the problems of interaction at different levels: economic, social and political.
The article was received on January 24, 2014. Bibliography
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In addition to Rutwell, many scientists, including S.C. Wheelwright, K.B. Clark, and others, were engaged in the study of existing and development of new models of innovation processes. But their work was largely united by a similar view of the closed nature of innovation. A fundamentally new perspective on this topic was proposed in 2003 by Henry Chesbrough in his book “Open Innovation. Creation of profitable technologies ”. According to this theory, when developing innovations, companies should contact as much as possible with partners, try to involve other scientists from all over the world in order to expand the environment in which the right solution to the problem can appear. The artificial framework of the company does not work in the G5 model, and in many cases there may not be enough existing staff to create innovation, therefore, that asset of competent specialists becomes insolvent. According to Hayek's theory of "diffused knowledge
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UDC 338.23 (517.3)
OBJECTIVE NEED FOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF MONGOLIA
© Davaasuren Avirmed1
Baikal State University of Economics and Law, 664003, Russia, Irkutsk, st. Lenin, 11.
Taking into account the trends of regional development of the countries of the world, the need for regional development and solving the problems of eliminating sharp socio-economic differences in the regions of Mongolia is considered, measures taken by the government to create a legislative and legal basis for the development of state policy for the regional development of the country are outlined; an analysis of the volumes of the gross regional product of Mongolia is given, the sectoral structure of the GRP of regions with trends of a decrease in agricultural production in the Western, Khangai, Eastern and Ulaanbaatar regions and an increase in the volume of industrial production and construction in all regions of the country is considered. Based on the analysis, the possibility of specialization of the Western and Eastern regions in the production of agricultural products was determined, and the Khangai, Central and Ulan Bator regions - in the production of industrial products, trade and the provision of various types of services. The necessity of developing a regional policy of the country, capable of eliminating sharp differences in socio-economic development and creating conditions for the sustainable functioning of the regional economy, has been substantiated. Tab. 1. Bibliography. 7 titles.
Key words: Government of Mongolia; gross regional product (GRP); Khangai, Central, Western, Eastern and Ulan Bator regions; specialization; Agriculture; industry; services sector.
ОBJECTIVE NECESSITY FOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MONGOLIA Davaasuren Avirmed
Baikal State University of Economics and Law, 11 Lenin St., Irkutsk, 664003, Russia.
Considering regional development tendencies in the global aspect, the article deals with the need for regional development and elimination of well-marked socio-economic differences between Mongolian regions. It describes the measures undertaken by the Government of Mongolia to create a legislative framework for the development of state policy on regional development of the country. Having analyzed the gross regional product (GRP) of Mongolia, it compares the sectorial structure of GRP in the regions featuring the reduction trend in agricultural output including Western, Khangai, Eastern and Ulaanbaatar regions with that of all regions of the country featuring the trend of growth of industrial production and construction. The analysis allowed to determine the possible specialization for Western and Eastern regions is agricultural production, while Khangai, Central and Ulaanbaatar regions are to specialize in industrial production, trade
1Davaasuren Avirmed, doctoral student, candidate of economic sciences, professor, leading researcher at the Institute of International Studies of the Academy of Sciences of Mongolia, e-mail: [email protected]
Davaasuren Avirmed, Doctoral Candidate, Candidate of Economics, Professor, Leading Researcher of the Institute of International Studies of Mongolian Academy of Sciences, e-mail: [email protected]
From history of innovation
E.A. Shkatova, E.A. Lepyokha (SVGU, Magadan)
Under innovation (eng. "innovation»- innovation, innovation, innovation) is understood to be the use of innovations in the form of new technologies, types of products and services, new forms of organization of production and labor, service and management. In the 2009 Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words, innovation is treated as an innovation. In the 1998 Dictionary of the Practical Psychologist, innovation is interpreted - in the socio-psychological aspect - as the creation and implementation of various types of innovations that generate significant changes in social practice.
The emergence of the term "innovation" is associated with a long evolution of the term "development", which originated in the philosophical teachings of Aristotle, and then in classical Latin literature (Priscianus, Corippus). It should be noted that Aristotle used this term in the everyday sense - "untangling opinions", and Cicero - as "opening the book."
A fairly broad definition of innovation is given by B.A. Rise-berg and L.Sh. Lozovsky, believing that innovation is an innovation in the field of technology, technology, labor organization and management, which is based on the use of the achievements of science, as well as the use of these innovations in various fields and fields of activity.
K.R. McConnell and SL. Brue means by this concept the launch of a new product into production, the introduction of new production methods or the use of new forms of business organization.
F. Kotler defines innovation as a product or technology that has been launched into production and has already entered the market, perceived by the consumer as new or possessing some specific unique properties.
B. Twiss defines innovation as a process in which an invention or idea acquires economic content.
F. Nixon believes that innovation is a combination of technical, production and commercial activities that lead to the appearance on the market of new and improved industrial processes and equipment.
I. Schumpeter interprets innovation as a new scientific and organizational combination of production factors, motivated by an entrepreneurial spirit.
Innovation became the subject of scientific study only in the 20th century.
So, for example, in science the term "innovation" began to be used in the 19th century in the study of anthropology and ethnography. In the XX century, the term "innovation" was introduced into science as an economic category. Entrepreneurs were the initiators of innovations (for example, G. Ford - the founder of a car manufacturing companyFordMotorCompany... He developed a system of mass production of cars based on a continuous conveyor, first used by him in the automotive industry), political and state leaders (Schumpeter, Kondratyev, etc.), architects (I. Hofmann, E. Saarinen, G. Hering, etc.) , artists, musicians (A. Sachs, P. Barth, T. Edison and others).
Let's take a closer look at how the theories of "innovation" evolved.
A great contribution to the foundation of the theory of innovation was laid by N.D. Kondratyev - economist, founder of the theory of economic cycles, theoretically substantiated the "new economic policy" in the USSR. He linked technological and economic innovation waves with radical changes in other spheres of society. N. D. Kondratyev laid the foundations of the general theory of innovation, covering not only technology and economics, but also the socio-political sphere, as well as the mechanism of interaction of innovations in various spheres of society.
In fact, Joseph Schumpeter is considered the founder of the theory of innovation, who picked up and developed the main ideas of N.D. Kondratyev in this area. Joseph Schumpeter is an Austrian and American economist, political scientist, sociologist and historian of economic thought. He focused on economic innovation and praised the role of the innovative entrepreneur in economic progress. Studies by Kondratyev's associate, Pitirim Sorokin, are considered important. He laid the foundations for innovation in the sociocultural sphere, understanding it in a broad sense - not only art and culture, social and political relations, but also the dynamics of scientific discoveries and inventions, interstate and civil wars. He also gave quantitative assessments of innovative waves in a number of areas of spiritual reproduction.
In the second half of the XX century. theories of innovation began to develop rapidly: Arnold Toynbee explored cyclesIN" the dynamics of local civilizations, the periodic change of their generations. Fernand Braudel, following R. Cameron, substantiated the presence of not only half-century Kondratieff, but also secular trends lasting from 150 to 300 years, believing that there are no longer historical cycles.
Simon Kuznets's Nobel lecture was devoted to the problem of the relationship between innovation and economic growth, where he formulated new approaches to the theory of innovation, which developed the ideas of Joseph Schumpeter and John Bernal. S. Kuznets introduced the concept of epoch-making innovations, he believed that they underlie the transition from one historical epoch to another. He believed that the main breakthrough in the development of human knowledge was provided by epoch-making innovations or innovations. S. Kuznets said that economic history can be divided into economic epochs, each of which is determined by an epoch-making innovation with its inherent characteristics of growth. According to S. Kuznets, it is the epoch-making innovations and the waves of basic innovations that realize their potential that underlie the transition not only of the economy, but of the entire society as a whole, from one stage to another.
B. Twiss (American economist) made a significant contribution to the theory of the innovative way of development, who emphasized the essence of the process of innovation, in which an invention or scientific idea acquires economic content, the creative nature of innovation. He also identified the factors that determine the success of innovation.
New ideas in the development of the theory of innovation are associated with the deep crisis of the world economy in the mid-70s and early 80s. This transition took place against the backdrop of the global energy crisis and price changes.
Such economists as Adam B. Yaffe, Josh Lerner, Scott Stern, M. Gyaratana, S. Torrisi and Alessandro Pagano have made a significant contribution to the development of the theory of innovation at the present stage. In their studies on economic well-being, they cited examples of the economic growth of developing countries through innovation. They also tried to highlight various factors of economic growth. In their opinion, one of the factors of innovative development of the economy is education. Special education plays a central role in supporting technological progress, just as the spending of large companies on research and development, together with the efforts of small entrepreneurs, is complementary to the innovation process, which means that the result of reciprocal actions is more beneficial to the economy than individual actions.
The adherents of the same theory are A. Arora and A. Gam-bardela, who believed that highly educated specialists are the main factor in innovative development. In their opinion, in all countries where the high-tech sector of the economy is developing, there are highly educated specialists regarding the level of development of this region. That is, the internal resources of the region contribute to the development of certain industries, for example, in Japan - this is the electronics industry, in Finland - telecommunications, etc.
Thus, education provides technical knowledge and skills to entrepreneurs associated with the process of innovation and economic growth, as well as stimulates creativity and imagination and simplifies the process of adapting innovation to life.
According to scientists K.R. McConnell and SL. Bru, large companies are a factor in the innovative way of developing the economy, since the latest technologies require the use of large capital, large markets, a complex, centralized and strictly integrated market, rich and reliable sources of raw materials. That is, only large companies can provide a technical breakthrough, since they have sufficient resources.
M. Gyaratana, S. Torrisi and A. Pagano adhere to the same theory. They based their views on the practice of Ireland, where the arrival of multinational companies preceded the growth of the innovative sector of the economy. But at the same time, they identified three more factors of economic development: an excess of highly qualified personnel, international relations, and domestic demand.
It should be noted that the modern Russian school of innovation in unity with the theory of cycles and crises dates back to 1988 in the works of Yu.V. Yakovets. Yu.V. Yakovets - Doctor of Economics, Professor of the Department of Theory and Practice of State Regulation of Market Economy of the Russian Academy. He proposed a classification of innovations (technical innovations) according to the level of novelty, introduced the concept of an innovation cycle, defined its structure, revealed the connection with scientific, inventive and innovation cycles, considered the mechanism for mastering innovations, characterized the differential scientific and technical income.
In the domestic literature, the problem of innovation has been considered for a long time in the system of economic research. However, over time, the problem arose of assessing the qualitative characteristics of innovative changes in all spheres of social life, but it is impossible to determine these changes only within the framework of economic theories.
We will dwell in more detail on innovations developing in the educational system. Innovation is inherent in any education - this is a characteristic feature of world pedagogy. Innovative pedagogical activity in Russia was carried out
not only in the last 20 years, but even in Soviet times, although it took place in a regulated manner, mainly on the basis of experimental schools. Pedagogical innovation processes have been the subject of special study in the West since the late 1950s, and in Russia since the 1980s.
Consequently, they started talking about innovations in the Russian educational system since the 80s of the XX century, and until now this phenomenon is one of the most vague and ambiguous from the standpoint of the categorical apparatus of pedagogy. As noted by N.Yu. Postalyuk, it was in the 80s in pedagogy that the problems of innovation and, accordingly, its conceptual support became the subject of a special study.
In the late 80s and early 90s of the XX century, the experience of educators-innovators became the property of the pedagogical community (Sh.A. Amonashvili, I.P. Volkov, N.N.Dubinin, E.N. Ilyin, V.F. Shatalov, M.P. Shchetinin and others), which stimulates and activates innovative processes in the domestic school. Since the 1990s. Russian education begins to actively borrow foreign pedagogical experience. The creative application of foreign teaching experience is becoming an important source of innovation. Consequently, the modern innovative "orientation" of pedagogical activity is a natural, socially and historically conditioned stage in the development of national education.
In the last 20 years, the problem of innovations in the field of education began to be considered in the works of domestic teachers and psychologists: N.V. Gorbunova, V.I. Zagvyazinsky,MB... Klarina,B. C... Lazarev, V. Ya. Laudis, M.M. Potashnik, S.D. Polyakova, V.A. Slastenin, V.I. Slobodchikova, T.I. Shamova, O. G. Yusufbekova and others. The terms “innovation in education” and “pedagogical innovation”, used as synonyms, were scientifically substantiated and introduced into the categorical apparatus of I.R. Yusufbekova.
Therefore, we can conclude that, continuing the tradition of N.D. Kondratyev, O. Spengler, J. Schumpeter, P. Sorokin, researchers of innovations extended them not only to technology and economics, but also to other spheres of society, including science, political and social life, culture, ethics, and religion.
Bibliographic list:
1. Akimov A.A. Systemological foundations of innovation / A. A. Akimov. - SPb. : Peter, 2012 .-- 38 p.
2. Bell D. The coming post-industrial society / D. Bell. - M.: Academy, 2009 .-- 786 p.
3. Gamidov G.S. Innovative economy: strategy, policy, decisions / G.S. Gamidov, T.A. Ismailov. - SPb. : Philosopher, 2011. - 132 p.
4. Emelin V.A. Technological temptations of the information society: the limit of human external extensions // Problems of Philosophy. -2010. -No 5.-C. 84-90.
5. Erofeeva N.I. Project management in education // Public education. - 2002. - No. 5. - P. 94.
6. Ivanova V.V. Knowledge-based economy as a stage of economic development of society // Bulletin of the International Nobel Economic Forum. - 2012. - No. 1. -S. 192-198.
7. Kuzmin M.N. The problem of preserving the unified educational space of Russia // Pedagogy. - 2004. - No. 4. - P. 3.
8. Mamchur E.A. Fundamental science and modern technologies // Problems of Philosophy. - 2011. - No. 3. - S. 80-89.
9. Orlova A.I. Revival of education or its reform? // Teaching history at school. - 2006. - No. 1. - P. 37.
10. Foster L. Nanotechnology. Science, innovation and opportunities / L. Foster. - M.: Technosphere, 2008 .-- 352 p.
Innovation as activity Plan History of innovation activity. Stages of development of innovative practice The emergence of innovation as a science is due to the entire course of the historical development of social production, especially during the period of its industrialization. the onset of a crisis of overproduction passing into the stage of depression These phases are considered by researchers as some property inherent in the economics of machine production. For this, innovation is defined as the introduction of novelty of new customs of orders.
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The history of the formation of innovation. Innovation as an activity
Plan
- History of innovation. Stages of development of innovative practice
- Development of innovations in the USSR
- The concept of innovation
- System concept of innovation
- Life cycle innovation
- Literature
1. History of innovation. Stages of development of innovative practice
The emergence of innovation as a science is due to the entire course of the historical development of social production, especially during the period of its industrialization. In this process, it is not difficult to trace certain patterns: 1. sporadically changing phases of production revival, 2. its rapid rise, 3. the onset of a crisis of overproduction, turning into a depression stage.
In general, the term "innovation" was originally associated with cultural changes in the 19th century. In V. Dahl's explanatory dictionary, "innovation" is defined as "... the introduction of novelty, new customs, orders." At the same time, there is a clarification that "... not every innovation is useful" ...
However, a number of researchers consider the process of development of science and technology, starting from the ancient world, the era of the ancient Paleolithic, marked by the invention of the first tools of labor and primitive technology. Indeed, these processes can be regarded as innovative, given that they have become one of the determinants of the social division of labor, the formation of social and industrial relations in primitive society. The invention of stone tools, the development of stone processing methodsin the Mesolithic era; the emergence of complex tools and the emergence on this basis of technologies for building dwellings (dugouts, pile structures), grinding, polishing, drilling,the birth of mining and the improvement of stone processing methods; invention drilling machine... The invention of the wheel and wheeled carts. The emergence of textile and fur industries inlate neolithic... Eneolithic. First use of metal. Fuse. The appearance of the first copper tools and weapons. The dominance of hoe farming. Construction of adobe ground dwellings and dugouts.
Antique technique... The transition from barbarism to ancient civilization. Technique of the slave-owning mode of production. Specialization in agricultural and handicraft production. The emergence of inventions. Mining development. The development of military technology. Improvement of roads and vehicles. Using rotational motion to create a wheeled cart. Sailing shipbuilding as a consequence of the development of trade. Weaving craft and improvement of textile technology. The development of agricultural technology. The invention of the potter's wheel. The origin of writing and the emergence of writing instruments.
Middle Ages. Feudal mode of production. Development of handicraft production. The emergence of workshops. Production specialization. The origin of manufactories. The origin of machine production. Mining development. Development of metallurgy and metalworking. Improvement of military equipment. The invention of gunpowder. The emergence and development of firearms. Development of land and water transport. The spread of navigation by using the phenomena of magnetism and the creation of a compass. Mechanical watches. Making and using glasses. Use of natural energy. The emergence of water and wind turbines, mills. Development of book printing and paper production.
However, these processes refer to innovative processes that determine the main stages of the development of human society as a whole. If we talk about the development of innovations as a special scientific sphere of social life, then this periodization looks somewhat different. Here it is possible to single out the main stages in the study of the problems of innovative practice, which makes it possible to judge the stages of the formation of innovation itself as a science. As mentioned above, in the 19th century, innovation was associated with sociocultural change. In the 20th century, the term "innovation" was adopted by economics. In 1909, W. Sombart, in his article "The Capitalist Entrepreneur", substantiated the concept of an entrepreneur as an innovator. He comes to the conclusion that the main function of an entrepreneur, which is to release technical innovations on the market for the sake of making a profit, encourages him not to be content with getting something new, but to strive to spread this new as widely as possible ...
First stage (from the beginning of the twentieth century to the end of the 70s of the twentieth century) is associated with the research of N.D. Kondratyev, J. Schumpeter, S. Kuznets, whose theoretical and methodological attitudes were focused on understandinginnovation mainly as a means of economic growth, overcoming the economic crisis and technical and technological modernization of productionand formed the basistechnical and economic approach to the study of innovation processes... In 1911. J. Schumpeter proposed a general concept of innovative entrepreneurship. He drew attention to the fact thatthe dynamic entrepreneur invents new combinations of factors of production, which are the source of entrepreneurial profit.J. Schumpeter identified 5 such combinations:
- Release of a new product or a known product of a different quality.
- Introduction of a new, previously unknown production method.
- Penetration into a new sales market.
- Obtaining new sources of raw materials or semi-finished products.
- Organizational restructuring, including the creation of a monopoly or its elimination.
After the Great Depression of the early 1930s, among managers in the United States, and then in other developed capitalist countries, the phrase "innovation policy of the company" gained popularity as a symbol of the manager's ability to bring the company out of depression. During this period, empirical research on innovations carried out by various organizations and enterprises began. These studies focused on 3 main areas: 1) the firm as an initiator and creator of innovation, its sensitivity to innovation, dependence on organizational structures and management methods. 2) Marketing or the behavior of a firm in the market, risk factors, methods for predicting the success of innovations, economic indicators of the effectiveness of individual stages and innovations in general. The main research paradigm isopen systems theory combined with a game approachwhere the firm interacts with the market as an environment and where the final stages of the innovation process are the result of the actions of many actors, each of which acts in accordance with their interests, taking into account the likely reactions of partners. 3) State policy in relation to innovative activities of firms, supporting their competitiveness in the world market.Management theory becomes the leading paradigm.
The combination of these areas of research is called "innovation".
Such tendencies in understanding the goals of innovative processes dominated until the 80s of the twentieth century and was reflected in the works of both domestic (A.N. Aganbegyan, L.S. Blyakhman, V.S. Rappoport) and foreign (J.A. Allen, K. Pavitt, E. Rogers, W. Roberts, L. Ullman, W. Walker and others) researchers. The results of research activities during this period made it possible to monitor technical and technological innovations and correlate them with changes in economic indicators, which contributed to the formation of innovation as a branch of science abroad by the 70s of the twentieth century.
In general, the first stage in the development of innovation as a science is associated with the study of factors affecting the effectiveness of innovations, the accumulation of empirical material, which has transformed into numerous irreducible classifications.
Second phase (from the beginning of the 80s of the XX century to the mid 90s of the XX century) is characterized byfocus on a comprehensive study of innovative processes and specific innovations, taking into account the factors that determine their effective implementation, which determines the beginning of research on the social background of innovation.At this time, the first educational training programs for participants in innovative activities appeared, with the aim of advising on a set of practical problems associated with the implementation of innovations (I.V. Bestuzhev-Lada, A.I. Prigozhin, B.V. Sazonov, N.I. Lapin, V.S.Tolstoy, V.D. Hartman, V. Stock and Belarusian researchers - V.A.Alexandrov; G.A.Nesvetailov). During this period, a time gap is revealed in the process of institutionalization of innovation in domestic science, which manifested itself in its acquisition of the status of a scientific direction only by the 90s of the twentieth century. In domestic and foreign science, the status of the alternative existence of research approaches to the study of innovative problems is being formalized -technical, economic and socio-humanitarian with a clear dominance of the first... This marked the beginning of the differentiation of research practices in the field of innovation, which resulted in a one-sided consideration of innovative phenomena, mainly from the standpoint of a technical and economic approach, and a fragmentary analysis of the social aspects of innovation.The main subject of research is the innovation process, including spontaneous diffusion and targeted transfer of innovations.
Stage Three (from the 90s of the twentieth century to the present) is characterized byinclusion of social aspects of innovation into the problem field of innovation and a change in the disposition of research approaches, expressed in the transition from alternativeness to their parallel implementation(A.S. Akhiezer, Yu.A. Karpova, V.Zh. Kelle, A.G. Krasnov, S.E. Kryuchkova, A.V. Markov, M.V. Myasnikovich, P.G. Nikitenko, V P. Petrov, A. I. Prigozhin, G. N. Sokolova, D. I. Stepanenko, S. A. Shavel, Yu. V. Yakovets,). At this stage, the attention of researchers is focusedon analysis different types innovative situations, the development of methods for early risk assessment, the formation of recommendations regarding state policy in the field of innovations.
Some researchers (N.I. Lapin) propose to single out the fourth modern stage in the development of innovation.The key aspect of the study at the present stage is innovative networks that are maximally sensitive to the fast dynamics of the market, marketing-oriented, catching potential demand trends.The present period is characterized by: 1) methodological rethinking of the status of research approaches and innovation paradigms along the way of their interaction and integration, which can be considered the beginning of a new stage in their development; 2) differentiation of innovation, which is expressed in the emergencesocial innovation(a system of knowledge about new methods of social development, about the features of the emergence and implementation of social innovations), and within its framework - the sociology of innovations, logistics of innovations, statistics of innovations; 3) humanization and humanization of innovation, which is expressed in understandinginnovations as social phenomena requiring research from the standpoint of socio-humanitarian sciences.
Currentlyinnovation processit is proposed to be understood as an integral system of measures related to the preparation, creation and practical implementation of innovations of a technical, technological, organizational, managerial, economic, social and other nature, satisfying commercial and non-commercial public needs through translation of innovations into the system of cultural norms, patterns and values. This is the process of creating an innovation, its dissemination and use of the result obtained.
Thus, starting at the level of individual production organizations, firms, innovative practice and its scientific research in the West spread to the level of national institutions.
2. Development of innovations in the USSR
A different method of developing innovations was used in countries with planned economies, including the USSR. Here, innovative practice was developed predominantly at the national state level. The centralized management of scientific and technological progress allowed the Soviet Union to achieve outstanding successes in the military-technical field (the production of nuclear weapons, the development of the atomic fleet, astronautics, and some types of military equipment.
At the same time, the backwardness of the Soviet economy from Western Europe and the United States was increasing (low level of equipment with high-tech technologies; high share of heavy types of labor, lack of provision of the population with high-quality goods and services). There were growing unsolvable vital problems (grain dependence on the West, housing problem, isolation from the outside world, etc.). The threat of lagging in the field of information-intensive weapons grew. Since the mid-50s. anxiety about the fate of the economic competition between the USSR and the Western countries is growing in society.
In the second half of the 50s. on the initiative of Khrushchev, a restructuring of industrial management was carried out. To overcome the sectoral isolation of enterprises, sectoral ministries were abolished and territorial economic councils were created. But this led to a violation of the unity of state policy, a slowdown in scientific and technical progress and the pace of production. After the dismissal of Khrushchev in 1965, at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Kosygin proposed a new reform: the restoration of sectoral ministries and the expansion of the rights of labor collectives. A movement began to plan the social development of labor collectives. But soon this project was recognized as ideologically harmful (the influence of the bourgeois market). The rights of ministries were expanded, and directors and work collectives were curtailed. In 1967, at the XXV Congress of the Party, Kosygin stated that the implementation of the achievements of science and technology in production was unsatisfactory.
The management of scientific and technological progress has become one of the priority areas of scientific research. The problems of introduction and widespread use of innovations remained in the background as problems of the micro level. The focus was on macro-level problems. Thus, in the USSR, research and development in the field of innovation began in the mid-70s. XX in. In a short period of time, they made it possible to obtain substantial results of a theoretical and applied nature. These results were oriented towards the release of the innovative potential of workers, the integration of elements of entrepreneurship into the planned economy. But such principles were not in demand in Soviet society, which does not diminish their scientific and applied significance for the socio-economic development of Russia.
3. The concept of innovation.
Innovation - there is a process of creating, distributing and using a new practical means for a new or better satisfaction of an already known need of people, groups, society. However, some researchers see innovation as an end result.innovation activities, which in turn is defined asa process aimed at translating the results of research and development into a new or improved product sold on the market, or a technological process used in practice... In any case, we cannot deny that innovation is one of the types of activity, and, therefore, has a structure, internal logic of development and structurally functional and meaningful parameters characteristic of any type of activity. Based on this, we will single out the following components in the structure of innovation activity:
Need - the state of the subject's need for something that lies outside of him, but which is necessary condition maintaining the normal life of the subject. In the case of innovative activity, it is social in nature.
Motive - an object of need, something for which the action is performed.
Target - the ideal image of the anticipated result.
Funds - the instrumental component of the activity, a certain set of actions, through which it is possible to achieve the goal.
Result - the final product. By correlating the result with the goal, you can determine the degree of its success.
However, innovation is inherently social. It takes place in a specific social environment. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce 2 more components into its structure. This is subject (actor ), the one thanks to whom innovation arises and develops. First of all, these are people who invent an idea, develop a concept for the implementation of an activity, implement it in practice and communicate it to consumers, ensuring massive satisfaction of the corresponding social need.
The activities of people, including innovative ones, are carried out in groups, work collectives. Therefore, the actors of innovation are organization focused on production and implementation of innovation as a means of making a profit. In addition, the actors of innovation are organizations that are indirectly involved in this process: administrative and managerial, socio-political, social, etc. This means that innovative activity involves the interaction of many social structures, the purpose of which is to increase the efficiency of their activities. And this can be considered as one of the leading criteria for the success of innovation, because if this does not happen, then the innovation cannot be considered successful, no matter how significant its subject content is. Let us recall the fact that in the conditions of centralized planning of the Soviet economy, economic incentives were replaced by command-and-control methods of organizing activities. Low economic interest of actors (enterprises, employees) not only slowed down innovation processes, but actually hindered their implementation and implementation, nullifying the effectiveness of any innovative ideas. Of course, this does not mean that all non-market mechanisms and motives (incentives, awards, etc.) should be eliminated, but they should, in conjunction with market ones, create the most favorable environment ...
Thus, it can be argued that if the internal environment of innovations is created by people as their authors, then the external environment is created by society as a whole, including the economic component (market mechanisms), social structure, and culture. In addition, many innovations interact with world markets (world economy, international relations), as well as with the natural environment (environmental factor). At the same time, the influence of innovations on the designated components is not one-sided, it is a process of interaction (for example, if during the implementation of an innovation there are changes in natural environment, this, in turn, modifies the innovation process).
4.System concept of innovation
Taking into account the multiplicity of interdependent factors indicated above and having a direct impact on innovation processes, it is obvious that the analysis and comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of innovation requires a systematic approach.
The objective basis of innovations, as an activity, is made up of social needs that are formed in various spheres of the life of society and do not receive their satisfaction through the available resources. If these needs remain unmet, this leads to the emergence of tension, depression and crisis phenomena, both at the level of individual individuals and at the level of the relevant social spheres and society as a whole. The satisfaction of these needs is possible by constructing new social practices adequate to the changing conditions, i.e. through some innovation. This innovative activity is the essence of innovation. In other words, innovation can be viewed as a form of organizing innovative activities for the purposeful satisfaction of the changing needs of people in the process of social development.
What exactly is the specificity of innovation? Scientific analysis shows that all types of human activity can be divided into reproductive and productive.Reproductive activityis based on repetition of already developed schemes of actions and is aimed at obtaining an already known result by known means. Its end result is quantitative indicators. Productive activity is associated with the development of new goals, means of achieving them or achieving known goals by new means. It includes the creation of a new quality, therefore, its necessary component is creativity, including the self-development of an innovative personality.
Productive activity is differentiated into spiritual and substantive-practical. Spiritual means change, the creation of new spiritual values, knowledge, beliefs, convictions. It includes forecasting and design, since remains at the project level. The second refers to the practical change by a person of the world around him and himself as an actor. This is the actual innovation activity, where at the initial stage a project of innovation is created, which is then embodied in reality.
Summarizing all of the above, it is possible to define innovative activity as a substantive and practical productive activity of people, which is creative and creates new qualities in various spheres of social life. Its object is other types of activity that were formed in the previous period and acquired a reproductive nature. And their funds have become routine for this community of people. Innovative activity, thus, is aimed at changing them. And its main function is to change their methods, mechanisms. From this it follows that innovative activity is a meta-activity that transforms reproductive activities.
A systematic analysis of innovation as an activity allows us to highlight the basic principles of innovation: integrity, structure and dynamism. An innovation is an integral system that is not reduced to the sum of its constituent elements, but has specific properties that are absent in its individual components. At the same time, innovation is a subsystem of a wider system, with which it interacts as its environment. At the same time, innovation is structured into interconnected subsystems.
At the same time, innovation is a contradictory system. When it arises, it asserts itself as a creative, unique activity. Then she begins to reproduce herself, functioning according to the laws she created. Over time, these mechanisms become routine and innovations become a daily practice, replaced by new ones ...
Innovation can have not only a positive impact on the social environment, but also negative, dysfunctional, upsetting the balance. Sometimes this is due to side effects, which, exceeding the effect of the original innovation, negate ... This can give rise to a desire to evade innovations, to resist them.
5. Life cycle of innovation.
So, innovation is a dynamic, internally contradictory system that has an activity nature. Its effectiveness depends both on the internal mechanisms of the innovation process and on the ways of its interaction with the external environment. Accordingly, in this activity, 2 aspects can be distinguished: substantive and formal. Pithy manifests itself in the procedural characteristics of innovation. The innovation process includes 4 components: fundamental research, invention, development and the commercial stage, which includes the preparation and launch of industrial production. Various authors offer a variety of models of innovation, including from 5-9 stages. At the same time, the distribution of costs is extremely uneven and in different models these indicators differ significantly. One thing is clear: in industrial production processes, all these stages (from fundamental research and the development of an idea to the disposal of industrial waste) are implemented by different people.
In formal aspect, the innovation process is a sequential cycle of specialized types or forms of activity. Usually there are 3 main forms of production of innovation: local production, monopoly production and expanded production.
1Local production innovation.
This form is limited to the production and use (consumption) of the innovation only by the firm or organization that ordered it. The local innovation cycle consists of the following stages:
- Development of an innovation project, including a feasibility study;
- First assimilation of an innovation, including applied research, development and prototyping, and first replication of the innovation;
- The first use of the innovation, its consumption by the customer and the first experience of service provision.
For the innovation process itself, the local cycle is rather a trial and experimental one. The process of innovation itself has already been launched, but there is still no connection with the external environment. It is a form of innovation process that inhibits the diffusion of innovation on a wider scale of the national and global market. In essence, this is a quasi-market and short-lived process.
II .Monopoly production innovation
As in the first case, the production of innovations is carried out by the firms-creators, but they sell their products through the external market, addressing it to many consumers. An intermediate reproduction cycle occurs when the market mechanism is turned on, but its action is limited by the presence of a single producer. It allows the actor firm to determine market prices and receive monopoly excess profits.
III .Advanced manufacturing innovation.
The production of this innovation is being mastered by many companies. The cycle of the innovation process becomes complete. It includes 2 more stages: distribution of production methods (know-nau) and forms of its use; and expanded production of the innovation, as well as the finishing stage - the routinization of the innovation up to saturation of the market and the termination of its production. It is only in the form of expanded production that market mechanisms fully come into play. They allow integrating all actors, linking their interests and goals, which was impossible to do in a planned economy by administrative methods.
The innovation life cycle (LIC) expresses the dynamics of the interaction of the innovation process with the external environment, its effectiveness for manufacturers and consumers. The type of life cycle depends on the form of the innovation process and on the nature of the external environment. We have already examined the forms of the innovation process, and in the external environment, 2 layers are of paramount importance for the life cycle: economic (customers and competitors) and infrastructure and management.
The local innovation cycle limits the life cycle of the implementation of the created innovation at one point - the customer. And the environment of such a process is narrowed down to a limited number of manufacturers. The life cycle of such an innovation includes 3 phases: development - production - implementation. This islocal-implementation ZhCI... The market is present only at the first stage, where manufacturers compete for the right to receive an order. In subsequent stages, market relations lose their incentive value. Competitors appear rather as potential ones in the future struggle for the next order.
The monopoly production of an innovation faces competition with the emergence of other manufacturers of the innovation. This ismonopoly market ZhCI... At a certain stage, it transforms, turning into the actual market cycle.
Expanded production of an innovation is completely market-based, while the intensity of competition is growing, prompting manufacturers to reduce prices for the innovation in order to expand its production and maintain high profits (mobile phones, computer equipment). This is an extended market life cycle. It distinguishes 5 main stages: start - rapid growth - maturity - saturation - finish.
At the start, there is no income from innovation, moreover, it is unprofitable. At the stage of rapid growth, there is a monopoly production of innovation, which generates super profits. The maturity stage is associated with the expansion of production of the innovation, due to which income is maintained, although the market value of the innovation decreases (competing manufacturers appear). At the saturation stage, the price drops sharply, and production is on the verge of unprofitableness. Finally, at the last stage, the market becomes oversaturated, and production becomes unprofitable.
When assessing the effectiveness of innovation, at least 2 criteria should be taken into account: the contribution of innovation to profitability and to the competitiveness of the firm. This largely determines its position in the socio-economic environment. The contribution to the profitability of a firm is assessed by the difference between the income from the implementation of the innovation and the costs of its production. A step-by-step accounting is necessary, but the final assessment of the contribution of innovation to the profitability of the company should be cumulative - based on the results of all stages and in comparison with the contributions of other innovations. Then it will become clear that even if not only the starting, but also the finishing stage is unprofitable, the aggregate balance of costs and income can be positive.
Another contribution of innovation - to the competitiveness of the firm - is even more important, but more difficult to identify and evaluate. In general, this contribution can be judged by the influence of innovation on such parameters as the supply of orders and capacity utilization. We will consider these questions in more detail in subsequent lessons.
6.Literature
a) main literature:
1. Dyatchin N.I. The history of the development of technology. Rostov-on-Don, 2011.
2. Rozin V.M. Philosophy of technology. Tutorial. M., 2011.
3. Lapin N.I. Fundamentals of innovation // Theory and practice of innovation.-M., Logos, 2008.
b) additional literature:
1. Alferov Zh.I. Physics and Life. - M.-S.-Petersburg, 2011.
2. Valyansky S.I., Kalyuzhny D.V. Another history of science. From Aristotle to Newton.
M., 2002.
3. Popper K. Logic and the growth of scientific knowledge. - M., 2003.
4, Gurkov I.B. Innovative development and competitiveness. M .: TEIS, 2003. Ch.5.
5.Lapin N.I. Theory and practice of innovation. M .: LOGOS, 2010. II.
6. Milner B.Z. Organization theory. 3rd ed. - M .: INFRA-M, 2002. Ch. 39.
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Prerequisites for the emergence and development of innovation in education
THE BEGINNINGS OF PEDAGOGICAL INNOVATICS
The concept of "innovation" appeared more than 100 years ago in cultural studies and linguistics when describing the processes of cultural diffusion, when a phenomenon from one cultural area penetrated into others.
The first most complete description of innovation processes was presented at the beginning of the twentieth century. economist I. Schumpeter, who analyzed "new combinations" of changes in the development of economic systems (1911).
In the 1930s, I. Schumpeter and G. Mensch introduced the term “innovation” itself into scientific circulation, by which they understood the embodiment of a scientific discovery in a new technology or product. Since that time, the term “innovation” and related terms (“innovation process”, “innovative potential”) acquired the status of general scientific categories and enriched the conceptual and terminological systems of many sciences.
Initially, the subject of innovation studies was the economic and social laws of the creation and distribution of scientific and technical innovations. But rather quickly, the interests of the new industry expanded and began to cover social innovations, and above all innovations in organizations and enterprises.
In the 1960-1970s. intensively developing research of innovations carried out by firms in order to conquer sales markets. Abroad, the transformation of the achievements of science and technology into a marketable product is seen as a big business (up to 1 trillion dollars a year). But there is also another reason. A manufacturer cannot work without new competitive products if he does not want to lag behind and lose his market segment.
Innovation developed as an interdisciplinary field of research at the intersection of philosophy, psychology, sociology, management theory, economics and cultural studies. By the 1970s. the science of innovation has become a complex, ramified industry. The concept of "innovative society" has appeared, which determines the vector of development of the modern post-industrial world.
In Russia, the formation of innovation as a science occurs first within the framework of building the foundations of scientific and technological progress. According to the researcher of innovations A.I. Prigogine, “the separation of innovations into a relatively independent subject of study began in our country with studies of the social consequences of production automation. Specialization in the field of innovations took place with a delay. " Innovation is inherent in any education and is one of its regularities; this is a characteristic feature of world pedagogy. From this point of view, in Russia, innovative pedagogical activity was carried out not only in the last 20 years, but even in Soviet times, although it took place in a regulated manner, mainly on the basis of experimental schools.
Pedagogical innovation processes have become the subject of special study in the West since the late 1950s, and in our country only in the 1980s. The development of pedagogical innovation in Russia was hampered by the monopoly domination of one ideology and the totalitarianism associated with it in the management of all spheres of life, science, and school.
In the last 20 years, the problems of innovations in the field of education began to be considered in the works of domestic teachers and psychologists: N.V. Gorbunova, V.I. Zagvyazinsky, M.V. Klarina, V.S. Lazarev, V. Ya. Laudis, M.M. Potashnik, S.D. Polyakova, V.A. Slastenin, V.I. Slobodchikova, T.I. Shamova, O. G. Yusufbekova ...
TO early XXI in. innovation in education has gradually emerged as a new branch of scientific and pedagogical knowledge, studying new technologies, school development processes, and educational practice. Today, pedagogical innovation is a field of science, the doctrine of the indissoluble unity and interrelation of the three main elements of the innovation process in the field of education: the creation of pedagogical innovations; their implementation and development; application and distribution.
Innovation originated at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the laws of technical innovations were studied. The first innovative observation was made by N.D. Kondratyev in the 1920s. He discovered the so-called "big cycles" ("long waves"), which are formed from each basic innovation and represent a multitude of secondary, perfecting innovations. "
To substantiate large cycles, N.D. Kondratyev analyzed extensive statistical material on the four leading capitalist countries (England, France, Germany, USA) for 140 years (from the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 20th century) and revealed the presence of 3 cyclical waves with a duration of 40-60 years.
In addition, N.D. Kondratyev identified empirical patterns that accompany fluctuations. In the development of the first wave, inventions in the textile industry and the production of cast iron, inventions related to the use of water energy, played a decisive role.
The second wave, in his opinion, was due to construction railways, the development of maritime transport, mechanical production in all industries based on the steam engine.
The third wave was based on the use in the production of electrical energy, the development of heavy mechanical engineering, the electrical industry, and new discoveries in the field of chemistry. Radio communication, telegraph, automobiles, airplanes entered life, non-ferrous metals, aluminum, and plastics began to be used.
5. Reasons and factors affecting the rate of spread of innovations.
Internationality of science. Development of the material and production base of the corresponding branches of the government. The development of an experimental base, which presupposes not only the availability of equipment and laboratories, but also the appropriate attitude of the state, supports and forms an innovative climate in society on the basis of appropriate legislation and other factors. Qualification of workers. Developed infrastructure.
5.1 The concept of innovation.
Distinguish between the concept of innovation in a broad and narrow sense. IN broadly defined by innovation understand the use of scientific and technical knowledge in order to transform various aspects of social life. In a narrow sense is an activity aimed at obtaining new scientific and technical knowledge and their implementation in the production sector in order to create a competitive product.
Development of innovative activities in Russia.
The modern Russian school of innovation in unity with the theory of cycles and crises dates back to 1988. when in the monograph by Yu.V. Yakovets "Acceleration of scientific and technological progress: theory and economic mechanism", a classification of innovations (technical innovations) according to the level of novelty was proposed, the concept of an innovation cycle was introduced, its structure was determined, the connection with scientific, inventive and innovation cycles was disclosed, the mechanism of mastering innovations was described, differential scientific and technical income (later it was called technological quasi rent) as the main incentive for the development of inventions ”.
These provisions were developed in a number of works by teachers of the Department of Theory and Practice of State Regulation of the Market Economy of the Russian Civil Registry Office, where a strong innovative school was formed under the leadership of Doctor of Economics, prof. Kushlina V.I.
The need for a transition to an innovative economy capable, on the one hand, of ensuring a sufficient variety of products produced in the country, and on the other, reducing dependence on imports of strategically important goods and technologies, has increased significantly in connection with the global financial crisis. The fall in world prices for energy resources, along with a high share of imports for Russia, led to the actual devaluation of the national currency. Successful overcoming of the crisis phenomena largely depends on what potential the Russian economy will have after the end of the crisis. This potential will determine the competitiveness of the Russian economy, the increase of which is possible on the basis of technological modernization due to domestic developments and the import of advanced innovative solutions.