The chronological framework of the Middle Ages and its stages. Subject, chronological framework and internal periodization "History of the Middle Ages

The term "Middle Ages" - Translation from the Latin expression Medium Aevum (Middle Age) - was first introduced by Italian Humanists. Roman historian XV century. Flavio Bjondo, who wrote a story from the fall of Rome, "trying to comprehend the modern reality, called the period of the" middle age "that he separated his era on the time serving the humanists to the source of inspiration - antiquity. Humanists were assessed primarily the state of the language, writing, literature and art. From the standpoint of high achievements of the culture of the revival of the Middle Ages, they saw both the period of the wild and warbization of the ancient world, as the time of the spoiled "kitchen" Latin. This estimate was forged for a long time in historical science.

In the XVII century Professor of the Gallery University in Germany Y. Keller introduced the term "mid-century" in general periodization of world history, separating it on antiquity, Middle Ages and a new time. The chronological framework of the period was denoted by the time from the separation of the Roman Empire to the Western and Eastern Parts (ended in 395 at Feodosia I) to the fall of Constantinople under the blows of the Turks in 1453

In XVII and especially the XVIII century. (Age of Enlightenment), which were marked by convincing success of secular rational thinking and natural sciences, the criterion of the periodization of world history began to serve not so much a state of culture as the relationship to religion and the church. In the concept of "Middle Ages", new, most advantage of derogatory, emphasis, due to which the history of this period was assessed as the time of constraint of mental freedom, domination of dogmatism, religious consciousness and superstitions. The beginning of the new time, respectively, was associated with the invention of typography, the opening of America Europeans, the reformal movement - phenomena, which significantly expanded and changed the mental horizon of a medieval person.

Romantic direction in historiography, which emerged in early XIX. in. Many as a response to the ideology of enlightenment and the value system of the new bourgeois world, aggravated the interest in Middle Ages and for some time led to his idealization. To overcome these extremes in relation to the Middle Ages, change in the process of knowledge, in the methods of comprehending by the European man of nature and society as a whole.

At the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries. Two achievements of a methodological nature, important for the development of historical knowledge, significantly deepened the concept of "Middle Ages". One of them was the idea of \u200b\u200bcontinuity public Development, replacing the theory of a circulation, or cyclic development, coming from antiquity, and the Christian idea of \u200b\u200bthe limb of the world. This made it possible to see the evolution of the Western European medieval society from the state of decline to economic and cultural lifting, the chronological line of which was the XI century. It was the first noticeable digression from the estimation of the Middle Ages as the era of the "dark centuries".

The second achievement should recognize the attempts to analyze not only the event and political advantage, but also social history. These attempts led to the identification of the term "Middle Ages" and the concept of "feudalism". The latter spread in French journalism on the eve of the French Revolution of 1789 as a derivative from the law term "Feed" in the documents of the XI-XII centuries, which denoted land property transferred to the use of Vassal's service to his senory. Its analogue in the German lands was the term "flax". The history of the Middle Easies began to be understood as the time of the domination of the feudal, or civil society system in the Wednesday of the feudalists - land owners.

Significant deepening the content of the analyzed terms gave the science of the middle - the end of the XIX century, the achievements of which were primarily related to the design of the new philosophy of history - positivism. The direction adopted a new methodology was the first most convincing attempt to turn history actually into science. It was distinguished by the desire to replace the story as entertaining story about the life of heroes of the history of the masses; attempts to comprehensive vision of the historical process, including the socio-economic life of society; Exceptional attention to the source and development of the critical method of its research, which was supposed to ensure an adequate interpretation of reality reflected in it. The development of positivism began with the 30s of the XIX century. In the works of O. Konta in France, J. Art. Mill and Spencer in England, but the results of a new methodology in historical studies have affected the second half of the century.

Subject, chronological framework and internal periodization of the "History of Middle Ages"

The subject of studying the history of the Middle Ages is the features and patterns of the development of society in this period. This is the formation of feudal relations in Europe, and the political and social development of states, and the cultural development of humanity.

The history of the Middle Ages tells us about the heroic wars, the dictatorial influence of the Church on the life of the public, the feudal stroke of the states, the first travelers - openers and an incomparable original culture.

The transition to feudalism from different nations occurred at the same time. Therefore, the chronological framework of the medieval period of unequal for different continents and even individual countries. In the countries of Western Europe, the Istokov Middle Ages on the periodization adopted in Soviet historiography is treated in the second half of the V c. The Western Roman Empire, which died as a result of the crisis of the slave-owned system, who made it defenseless in front of the barbaric invasions of the Germanic and Slavic tribes. These invasions led to the disintegration of the empire and the gradual elimination of the slave-building in its territory, became the beginning of a deep social coup separating the Middle Ages from ancient history. For the history of Byzantium, the beginning of the Middle Ages consider the IV century, when the East Roman Empire took shape as an independent state.

The first bourgeois revolution of the pan-European importance is considered to be the first bourgeois revolution of the pan-European significance in Soviet historiography, which posted the beginning of the domination of capitalism in Western Europe, is the English revolution of 1640-1660, as well as the end of the first pan-European - thirty-year-war (1648). This periodization is used in this textbook.

It is not, however, nor the only nor indisputable. In foreign historiography, both the capitalist and socialist countries, a face separating the Middle Ages from the New Time, is considered either the middle of the XV century., Or the end of XV is the beginning of the XVI century. That is, as a turn considering the conquest of Turks-Osmans of Constantinople and the wreck of Byzantium, the end of the century of war (1453) or the beginning of the era of great geographical discoveries, especially the opening of the Columbus of America. In particular, some Soviet researchers believe that the XVI century, the era of the first bourgeois revolutions, should be attributed to a special period of the new time. On the other hand, a number of historians adhere to the point of view that if we consider the Middle Ages as a period of domination of the feudal formation, it should be included in it for Western Europe and the XVIII century - to the Great French Revolution 1789-1794. Thus, this question belongs to the number of discussion.

In Soviet historiography, the history of the Middle Ages is customary to divide into three basic periods: I. End VB. - Mid XI V. - Early Middle Ages (early referring period), when feudalism only developed as a dominant method of production; II. Mid XI V-End XV. - a period of developed feudalism, when the feudal system achieved the highest heyday; III. XVI in. - The first half of the XVII century. - a period of decomposition of feudalism, when capitalist relations are born in the depths of feudal society and begin to develop.

Periodization of Western Europe
V-XI centuries. - Early Middle Ages, the time of formation of the feudal method of production.
XI-XV centuries. - Classical, or developed medieval, period of developed feudalism.
XVI- Sum XVII centuries. - Later, the Middle Ages, or early new time, the period of decomposition of feudal relations and the origin of the capitalist production method.
Periodization of Byzantium
IV-VII centuries. - The first, or early period, the gradual evolution of lateant institutes in early refortel.
Second floor. VII-XII centuries. - second, or the average period, the flourishing of the Byzantine Empire.
XIII - Ser. XV century (1453) - Third, or late period, late Byzantine feudalism, crisis of the Empire.

During V c. On the Western Territory of the False Roman Empire, various tribes of the barbarians-Germanians were spread. They took the territory of modern Italy, France, Spain, Germany, England, the Netherlands.

The barbaric states arising in the ruins of the Roman Empire were characterized by the Christian religion, which replaced the ancient pagan beliefs of the barbarians, and the new European culture formed in the sphere of religion.

The nature of the entire medieval art is extremely contradictory. On the one hand, it is the propaganda of religious ideas and asceticism, on the other - the reflection of the vast wealth of the internal life of a person, his mental state, the beauty of labor. And it was this second side of medieval culture that prepared her extraordinary take-off in the revival era.

The "Middle Ages" is the time that is located in the middle between antiquity and new time and, for some incredible reason, does not have its own name. It covers more than a thousand years of human history. It is customary to divide into three main periods:

1. Early medieval, V-x centuries;
2. High (classic) Middle Ages, X-XIV centuries;
3. Later, the Middle Ages, the XIV-XV centuries. [from. 116, 10]

In the early Middle Ages, another V-VIII centuries allocate as an independent period. - This era is called "dark eyelids" or "the period of the great resettlement of peoples."

The Middle Ages (Middle Ages) is the era of the domination in the Western and Central Europe of the feudal economic and political system and the Christian religious worldview, which has occurred after the crash of antiquity. Replaced with revival. Covers the period from IV to the XIV century. In some regions, it remained in a much later time. The beginning of the Middle Ages most often consider the fall in the Western Roman Empire in 476. However, some historians offered to be considered the beginning of the Milanemian Milan Edict 313, which meant the cessation of persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Christianity has become a decisive cultural course for the eastern part of the Roman Empire - Byzantium, and in a few centuries it became dominated in the states of the barbaric tribes formed in the territory of the Western Roman Empire.

Regarding the end of the Middle Ages, historians have no consensus. It was proposed to consider Takov: the fall of Constantinople (1453), the opening of America (1492), the beginning of the Reformation (1517), the beginning of the British Revolution (1640) or the beginning of the Great French Revolution (1789).

The term "mid-century" (lat. medium? vum.) was first introduced by the Italian humanist Flavio Bjondo in the work "Decade of History, ranging from the decline of the Roman Empire" (1483). Prior to the dominant term to refer to the period from the time of falling the Western Roman Empire to Renaissance, the concept of "dark centuries" was introduced by Petrarch, which in modern historiography means a narrower period of time.

In the narrow sense of the word, the term "Middle Ages" applies only in relation to the Western European Middle Ages. In this case, this term implies a number of specific features of religious, economic and political life: Faodal land use system (landowner feudallands and semi-dependent peasants), vassalitet system (binding feudal relations of Senior and Vassal), unconditional domination of the church in religious life, political power of church (inquisition, church courts, the existence of bishops-feudal), ideals of monastic and chivalry (A combination of the spiritual practice of ascetic self-improvement and altruistic ministry to society), the flourishing of medieval architecture - Romanians and Gothic.

Many modern states arose in the Middle Ages: England, Spain, Poland, Russia, France, etc.

Section 5. Culture of European Middle Ages

Chapter 1. The culture genesis of the European Middle Ages as a historical civilization

1.1. The origin and significance of the concept of "Middle Ages"

1.2. Chronological framework of European Middle Ages

1.3. Factors that caused the transition from antiquity to Middle Ages

1.4. Christianity as an axis of European cultural history

Chapter 2. Western Europe and Byzantium as Local Civilizations of European Middle Ages

Chapter 3. Typological characteristics of the culture of the European Middle Ages

3.1. Agricultural and feudal nature of culture

3.2. Mental-value core of medieval culture

3.3. Typological characteristics of cultural practice

Chapter 4. Cultural Practices of the Western European Middle Ages

Chapter 5. Cultural Practices Byzantium

Chapter 1

Culture genesis of European Middle Ages as a historical civilization

The origin and significance of the concept of "Middle Ages"

The term "Middle Ages" first arose in Italy in the Renaissance era. For the Italian Humanists of the XVI century, there was an important oppression of his era, "new time", the thousand-year period, which ran between them and the ancient world. "Middle Ages" (medium aevum with lat. Literally: "Middle Ages") is the time, but rather, "rape", during which the great ancient culture was exercised. This value of the concept of "Middle Ages" is largely preserved and still.

Together with this understanding in history for several centuries, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Middle Ages was established on the time of the decline of culture, the time of ignorance, darkness and obscurantism, the dominance of religious dogma and doctrines. Until the XIX century, the Middle Ages even among educated people caused quite dark associations with the "failure" in the history of culture. AND I. Gurevich in his study notes that even in the second half of the XIX century. In the "universal literature dictionary" published in France, the Middle Ages said as the "ten centuries of the darkness" separating antiquity from the Renaissance.

Such a interpretation had a certain justification, since the world of new European culture was created in acute controversy with old, and Middle Ages were attributed to all those negative signs, from which, as it seemed, the emerging epoch was free. New European Culture, which began with the Renaissance, would like to personnel themselves in the descendants not so much Middle Ages, how many antiquity, and this gave birth to a special attitude, the Metko characterized by Yu.M. Lotman (though, in a somewhat different occasion): "... Ancestors admire - parents condemn; Ignorance of ancestors compensate for imagination and romantic world-upsion, parents and grandfathers remember too well to understand. Everything good in yourself is attributed to the ancestors, all bad - parents. "

Another, and the polar, interpretation of the concept of "Middle Ages" is associated with the spreading at the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. The romantic world stroke in European culture, from the position of which the Middle Ages was perceived as the "golden age" of culture, the time of the highest spirituality and comprehending the highest divine meaning of being. Thus, the romantic age, according to the remark of J. Le Goff, tried to replace the "black legend" "Golden".

In the XX century Researchers began to avoid so unambiguous estimates of the Middle Ages, realizing the task of an unbiased and adequate description. Now, thanks to their efforts, it became clear that the role of the Middle Ages for the entire subsequent history of European civilization is difficult to overestimate. After all, it was then that modern European languages \u200b\u200band a nation have been formed, European states today have developed today, and many values \u200b\u200bof the current European culture go down to Middle Ages. And this is just a quick overview of the medieval heritage!

Chronological framework of civilization of the European Middle Ages

They are determined by specialists in different ways, depending on the economic, sociocultural, political, legal and other criteria. However, you can see that throughout IV - VI centuries. It is clearly carried out by the transition from one type of civilization - ancient, to the new - medieval. Undoubtedly, this transition period, the time of "fermentation", the decay of one quality and the origin of the other (this time interval of S.S. Averintsev calls the "temporary gap" between the ancient and medieval type of culture). The appearance of medieval civilization contours is therefore often referred to no earlier than the KVII - VIII centuries. - The time when two "local" civilizations of the European Middle Ages received their civilization status: Western Europe and Byzantium.

As for the chronological end of the medieval era, it also does not have an unambiguous absolute expression, and it can only be about relative chronology.

In the most general form, the Middle Ages in Western Europe ends as the signs of a new historical and civilization type are approved - modern. The relativity of the lower temporal boundary of the Middle Ages, therefore hesitates for various European countries within 2-3 centuries, i.e. between the XIV and the XVII centuries.

The end of the Byzantine Middle Ages is usually associated with the fall of Constantinople (the capture of its Seljuky Turks) in 1453. F. Engels wrote: "Together with the elevation of Constantinople and the fall of Rome ends antiquity. With the fall of Constantinople, the end of the Middle Ages is inextricably linked. New time begins with return to the Greeks. "

Factors that caused the transition from antiquity to Middle Ages

Chapter 2.

Western Europe and Byzantium as local civilizations of the European Middle Ages

The medieval type of civilization and culture is represented by two varieties: Latin (Catholic) West (Western Europe) and Greek (Orthodox) Byzantium. Thus, as in antiquity, the unified stream of European culture is "splits" into two channels, but this process has now other bases. Otherwise, the relationship between the Byzantine and Western European civilizations of the Middle Ages also develops.

Chapter 3.

Typology characteristic of the culture of the European Middle Ages

Agricultural and feudal nature of culture

From antiquity of the Middle Ages inherited agricultural type culture.The main economic rod of this culture is agricultural work. Only at the end of the epoch the background of the industrial revolution. Moreover, medieval culture is even more rural than its predecessor. The development of cities and associated handicrafts is celebrated in most European countries only in the late middle ages. Yes, and medieval cities themselves play a fundamentally different role than city cities. Old antique cities were bleeding, the craft in them turned out to be destroyed, the trade declined.

Changes in the agricultural nature of culture concern feudal relationship Property. Feudalism (from Lat. Feodum or Feudum - Earth, position, income compared to his vassal in hereditary possession under the condition of military service, assistance in managing the estate, participation in court and payable for customs provided by custom) is based on a large nobility land tenure in combination with peasant (ridiculous) land use, attaching direct manufacturers to Earth, their class inferiority and personal dependence on the feudalists. So, in this society there are two types of relationships: economic and personal contractual relations.

Cultural picture of the world.

The contours of medieval Christian mentality appear already in the transitional era, while its roots it goes to the lateant culture.

The source point for building a new cultural model was the antique ideas about space as a world-order basis. If paganism in his mythological, and then in philosophical manifestations deified the very cosmos, not separating, thus, the source of the world order from matter, the consciousness of the early Middle Ages strengthened the idea of \u200b\u200ba comprehensive and meaningful ordering of things, alienation from the very extent of his source and embodying the last in the idea of \u200b\u200babsolute , minced (transcendent) and sovereign God.

The very cosmos is in relation to God in the relationship of humility, monastic obedience. Such a parallel between the world of the celestial bodies and the world of society meant creationism - teachings about the same God as the creator of the elements and as legitimate people

Most of all to such an understanding of being, those directions of ancient idealism, who were fond of the ideas of "harmony of spheres", "Star-order" - Pytagorism and Platonism. The next step in this direction was made by Filon Alexandria (Kon. I c. BC. E. - Nach. I century. N. E.) - "This Father of Christianity" (F. Engels). This thinker developed the doctrine of God as a higher spiritual abstract beginning, located out of the world created by him, about the Son of God, sent to the land in the atonement of human sinfulness. This was so important for Christianity and the Christian culture synthesis of idealistic ancient thinking and Eastern (Judist) mythological worldview with a pronounced monotible, eschatology and messianism.

So, in the center of Genesis, the emerging medieval consciousness put God as the Creator of all the existing and as an absolute spiritual substance, the predominant in the world.

These ideas were developed in the works of Christian thinkers of IV - V Vz.: Ambrose Mediogenian (334 or 340-397), Safonia Evseeviy Jeronim (347-420) and especially Avroley Augustine (354-430 G.). In his treatises "On Grada God", "On Christian Teaching" and others, as well as in their famous "confession", Augustine nominated two major problems left in negligence ancient thought. One of them is the problem of becoming a human personality with its crises and fractures, the other is the dynamics of universal history with its internal contradiability.

The basis of the worldview system created by Augustine is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of two states, "Grads", the IPostasy of Genesis: hail of the Divine, Heaven (Civitas Dei) and Grad of the Earth (Civitas Terrena). The first one inhabit the righteous, true Christians, angels - i.e. creatures, faithful to God who loving his true love, in which they reach to contempt to themselves; The second is the wicked and sinners, which most people are and in which true love is suppressed by love for themselves, brought to contempt to God. Both of these world are so closely intertwined between themselves, that one and the same person can simultaneously carry them in themselves. The eternal struggle of these began is, in August, the leading collision of world history.

The founder of the earthly city was Cain's Fratoebian. The brawie was and Romulus, built the city of Rome on the blood of his brother. The human world, therefore, and Rome as a visible embodiment initially carry a crime and evil. He tries, but only to the pore. Heavenly degrees, like a defective, but the suffering Ability, is persecuted, while, thanks to the arrival of the Christian church, the life of the "spirit" will not enthusiasm, and not "flesh." Those who are never able to overcome the shackles of earthly hail, will be doomed to eternal flour. What dimension is both hail? Grad earthly developing historically, the hail of God is in eternity. Hence the natural attention of Augustine to Time issue.

Before the creation of the world was not there. Only the emergence of the objective world caused some movement. Changes in the creature world and form time. After a long reflection, Augustine comes to the conclusion that time does not have ontological status and is concluded only in the soul of the subject. Only here, in the personal psychological dimension, there is a reality of the past (memory) and the potential reality of the future (waiting). Thus, the time is derived from the created world, it is a lot of human life and history. The movement of the world from creation by the end of the light is measured evenly current time, and only on this path it is possible to achieve an attachment to true dear and eternity. The leading time characteristics are becoming linarity and limb.

The beginning and end are significant moments of the history of earthly hail. And in the very concept of earthly history go to the fore Teleologism and providencyalism. The first means that over defined the goal, to which humanity comes and comes and comes to all the zigzags and the opponent movements, the type of progressive development - ascent to the "kingdom of God". The second records the idea that these ways themselves are known to Divine Providence. Moreover, medieval thinking is developing a concept. predesting, sharply different from the ancient ideas about the fatality of space. According to this concept, God initially predetermined for an eternal blissful life of a certain and final number of people. "Favorites" by the grace of God, regardless of their merit and larchings, will be able to enter the heavenly kingdom. Nevertheless, the rest, also regardless of the earth's lifestyle, are doomed to eternal death.

So, the look of the historian of culture appears the following picture of the world, Characteristic for medieval cultural consciousness. Genesis is built as a whole, in a certain way ordered and organized system. In her center - God, understood as transcendental, ultra-industrial, supersensible, infinite, omnipresent, intangible and perfect beginning. All other ideas and ideas, values \u200b\u200band ideals of a medieval person are grouped around this semantic nucleus. . In general, Boyko is structured. Really existed, it is also recognized as a person, sacred, perfect and essential being - the existence of God (heavenly reality) - and the carnal, sinful, worldly (earthly reality). The second reality is derived from the first and subordinate to it.

So, the medieval cultural consciousness is characteristic primarily dualism and hierarchismwho put an imprint on all the semantic categories of this culture. Dualism means the consistent and absolute opposition of God to the entire Creasing World, hierarchism - the establishment of subordination relations between members of such dichotomy. Medieval consciousness knows various variants of semantic oppositions that correlate among themselves and with the mentioned "central" dichotomy: heaven / earth, sacred (sacred) / sinful, spiritual / carnal (bodily), high / low, good / evil, clean / unclean and t ..

However, not only mutually exclusive categories (opposites) are taken into the opposition (opposite), but also close to each other. "Therefore, - said S.S. Averintsev, the opposition "Sacred - sacred" comes into effect. This opposition is expressed in the twin with the Christian Canon of the Bible: the Old Testament will holy, however, the new covenant more Holy [highlighted by the author] ... It is expressed in the church architecture: the whole temple is a sacred place, but the altar is sacred. It is expressed in the routine of the Church: any worship is a sacral act, but liturgi is belong to a higher level of sacrality. "

Dualism and hierarchism are also manifested in the ideas about space and of time. The heavenly space is sovereign and populated by spiritual creatures, earthly - depending on people, "creatures", filled with material objects. Heavenly lined up vertically (the opposition "top / bottom"), earthly horizontal (opposition "His / Alien").

The model of vertically organized space is a microcosm: a temple, a human body, - where the upper parts symbolize the belonging to the highest being, and the lower is the lower degree of sacrality or even sinfulness.

On Earth, the space is hostile to man; Outside the territory mastered the territory is an unknown and threatening world. For a medieval (especially Western) person, the external world is either a wild thick forest, impassable concrete, or a deserted desert. Resettlement to such a world (for example, deserted) marked in the context of medieval culture "Care from the world", which means the test and at the same time - the subordination of his life is not worldly, but the divine start (monasticism).

The world of settlements mastered by a medieval man is the world of extensive spots and proglin, disheveled in the wild. In their semantics - "refuge", "defense" - dualism is also captured in the understanding of earthly space. The border between the settlement and the outside world is always labeled - these are protective fortifications (powerful, sometimes in 2-3 wall belts, deep rally, sentigible posts and towers), and used as such features of the natural landscape (hill, river, in the radiation of which was often placed settlement, etc.). The special semantic load carry those elements of the "borders", which perform the function of communication of the internal and external space, - bridges, gates.

Despite its antagonism, heavenly and earthly reality are strangely connected in the medieval consciousness into a single whole, because "God is" blessing and sanctifying everything[highlighted by the author]. " The Lick of God "Captures" through the items and phenomena of earthly reality, which acquire the character symbolstransmitting in tangible, sensual form to essential, transcendental content. Thus, the abyss between the two reality is eliminated, and they are in the consciousness of a person different ipostasi same one and the same., Important place in the medieval system of culture occupies symbolism.

It is important to note that the symbolic understanding of being was fought by the freedom of human will and prevented her even to concern the buildings of the earthly society, because His loosening automatically meant an attempt on the Society of Heavenly. Therefore, it should not seem strange and so preissual attitude of a person of this era to the form (writing letters, iconographic canons in painting, church ritual, etc.), since every form is sanctioned over.

Only the earthly hypostasis of being has a temporary extent; At the same time, time is the moment of eternity, so it can belong only to one God. Use of time, the extraction of the benefits was considered a sin.

Spatial continuity, bizarre-binding and intertwining sky and land, corresponded understanding the time as continuous and linear. The idea of \u200b\u200ba renewable temporary cycle, quite restricted in antiquity with the idea of \u200b\u200btemporary irreversibility, in general, alien to medieval mentality. Time inexorably drives the history of human genus from the moment of creation by the end of the world, the second coming of Christ and the terrible court. On this earthly story is exhausted, and the celebration of the kingdom of heaven is coming. Between the beginning and the end, these two significant milestones, the story unfolds, the eigenvalue of which ultimately is recognized as unimportant. Important "extreme", the polar points of the process: the initial, without which there would be no story itself, and the final, which, like a magnet, forms its vector orientation, is the motive of movement.

Human itself the story will double nasacral (sacred) and worldly. The value of the first is immeasurably higher, since the events pretending to the Savior Earth are unfolded at its length. The first goes with its roots in the sacred story, which begins with such a primary event, as an act of creation, and ends with the temptation of Adam and Eve and its original sin. Then, already on Earth, the sacred Old Testament and New Testament Story unfolds, and the first anticipate the second. This is a prevention, in fact, and constitutes the main sacral topic. The price is cut into two parts due to the embodiment of the Lord. On this fact, all medieval chronology is being built, leading its own account of the time "on both sides of this significant event. "To" (christmas Christ) "- this time with the sign" - "," after "- time with the sign" + ". Nevertheless, compared with a modern medieval man was much more indifferent to the exact (absolute) dating of events. The exact indication of the time was interested only in connection with the events of sacred history. Here the chronology was surprisingly strict. So, the most detailed way is the creation of the world (exactly six days), the history of the fall, the Earth is the Genesis of Christ. All these dates and deadlines acquire a symbolic value, and "the clock" of all human history "is checked. In the same way as for the methods of measuring time, the Middle Ages practically did not make anything new after antiquity. It still does not skillfully divide the time on equal segments of duration. In fact, all chronological tools (solar, sand and water clock and na. Other devices) remained unchanged without change.

The basis of the practical countdown of time throughout the Middle Ages is agrarian, rural time, oriented, as it should be agricultural culture, the natural cycles and milestones of the main agricultural work. Of all the events, medieval chronicles were distinguished by such that bind to unusual or threatening natural weather phenomena - crouch, sea, bad weather, eclipses. However, agrarian time was closely wounded with time religious.

The agricultural year was simultaneously a liturgical year: it was filled with events and holidays associated with the life of Christ, the Virgin and the Holy Martyrs. The liturgical year was agreed with the rhythm of agricultural work, which old pagan traditions were manifested. So, summer and part of the autumn were almost free from major church dates and holidays, because coincided with the highest possible labor period (the exception here is a trinity). The most rich holidays of the segment of the religious year turned out to be winter time until the beginning of the spring field work, to which such the largest church dates like Christmas, Annunciation, Easter, ascension were dedicated.

Leading theme mirly history becomes transition, movement of power from one world center to another.It comes from that idea that at all times and the epochs of the world lives obeying only one center, which manages all the earthly rhythm. As in the archaic era, the authorities are attributed to sacred character, it is from God. There is a continuity of power and civilization in the world, and with each such transmission, the compliance of the power of the earthly power of heaven is growing, because Power goes into more and more decent hands. Thus, the power of Babylonian through Middes and Persians moved to Macedonians, and then to the Romans. The fall of Rome was explained by the fact that he turned into the "Babylonian Bludnitsa", contributed to the prosperity of vice and moral decomposition. By the legal successors of the Romans were the Byzantines, and the last way of power was interpreted differently in the West and in Byzantium: the role of the Third Rome West attributed to himself (then the Empire of Caroling, the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation), and the Orthodox world (especially in Russia, in Russia The period of the Moscow Kingdom) is. Thus, for the Middle Ages, fierce disputes around the topic of the "Third Rome" are characterized, and this is not by chance.

The earthly linear story seeing the mature medieval consciousness not ascending, as at the dawn of this era (see above), and descending. The favorite idea of \u200b\u200bmedieval authors was the thought of aging, decline and grinding the genus of the human, damage and fragility of the world. The words of Bernard Chartresky are significant: "We are just dwarfs standing on the shoulders of the giants." In the practice of medieval education, you can meet serious reasoning that the ancient people were higher than the growth than the current, and in the future people will decrease even more in size. In this sense, medieval consciousness is really catastrophically, a kind of funeral ringing is imbued. Humanity, as it were, prepared himself to adopt inevitable punishment and terrible court.

It should be noted that the linear and irreversible time is more consistently withstanding in the Western European mentality. Byzantine cultural consciousness, much longer kept the idea of circles renewable movement. Confirmation Many researchers see various devices cult facilities, differently displaced, simulated medieval universe. In the West, the basilical type of the temple was developed, where the horizontal linearity was dominated - the stretch along the West axis, from the entrance to the altar. In Byzantium, the cross-dome type of temple buildings was established with the circular space inherent in the circular organization, where the main liturgical action was carried out.

Those or other events and images of sacral history received various understanding in the context of Western and Eastern Christianity. Thus, the Catholic consciousness emphasizes attention at the initial point of the life of Christ - the coming of him to the Earth, Merry Christmas. The main holiday of Orthodox is Easter - the Light Resurrection, the moment of the celebration of his saving faith. In different ways perceived in the Western and Eastern European consciousness, the image of Mary. The first treats it primarily as the image of a clean and immaculate young virgin; The second - sees in it the idea of \u200b\u200bmotherhood, consolation and intercession.

Model of man

Christianity contributed to the growing understanding of the significance of the individual, its value allocation. It is not by chance that medievists write about the "catastrophic explosion of personal self-consciousness in the very depths of the Middle Ages."

At the same time, the culture of the Middle Ages is not yet peculiar to the understanding of an individual (\u003d separate) person as a person as self-concrete personality, the value of which is in that and consists that it is not similar to others, different from others. "For medieval minds, separate-individual is an excident, i.e. Something secondary, private, random, strlen and painful in man; It is paramount, on the contrary, everything that sends the cathedral and eternal. " Even in the sacred plane, the distinction is a way to represent a common one. "The fact that both God-Father, and the Son God, and God-Spirit differ, because they are at the same time the essence of one, so the differences are unity, and unity is the differences ... Thinking even Christ would be a distinctive. . ". To think his "I" as something exclusive and sovereign would be in the eyes of a subject of medieval culture with a severe sin, the expression of pride, a criminal person. "All in the hands of God", "On all the will of God" - here is his credo. The Middle Affairs of the Middle Ages comprehended his individuality primarily through an example, imitating indisputable authorities, realizing himself in the forms of archetypical samples known to it, identifying himself with them. He paradoxically argues his own "personality" by denial of its originality, pointing to the universal and universal, which is in private and one. So, by observing A.Ya. Gurevich, such medieval authors, like Gwiebert Skander or Pierre Abelar, in their autobiographical writings seek to imitate the "confession" of Augustine and the life of Saint Jerome. Thus, "the personality of the medieval era was generally able to" collect "himself only from fragments of other personalities given to her in literary texts" , she thought of herself "centrifugal", as opposed to "centripetal" characteristics of the new time.

Axiological system.

The value dominant of medieval culture is the idea of \u200b\u200bGod. "It was," A. Gurevich notes, - for the people of Middle Ages, the highest truth, ... with which their cultural and social values \u200b\u200bwere correlated, the final regulatory principle of the whole picture of the world of the era. "

In their intentions to achieve consistency with the world of existent and spiritual absolutes, the Middle Ages man adhered to concept ministry, what did he see for the embodiment of the only purpose of man. Interesting in this regard, the interpretation of faith (in God) is presented as "loyalty" to him. "Vera" and "loyalty" - the same (Headering "` Aemunah ", the Greek" Pistis ", Latin Fides mean both of these concepts," says S.S. Averintsev.

The "Earth" correlator of serving God was recognized as a variety of forms of social functioning of the individual, in the framework of public stratification and hierarchization: vassal-feudal and "state" submission were considered as a way to implement the individual of his earth's mission. Personal loyalty and dedication to Senor (Western Europe) or the Emperor (Byzantium) - different manifestations in essence of the same value orientation outgoing from the presentation that any earthly power is the hypostatic of the power of heaven. In turn, the ministry assumed overcoming tovilia, interpreted as pride - one of the greatest "mortal sins". "On all the will of God", "everything is from God" - here are the leading behavioral imperatives that managed by the man of this era.

As the main form of ministry of the Middle Ages work, for the first time in the history of the "out of the shadow" of culture. It is in the era of the Middle Ages "work receives an ethical substantiation: it is important to work, moreover to work in accordance with your earthly destination. Labor is the main shipyard of a person defined by him the Lord, and for one such work is already sacred. However, there is a certain hierarchization, dictated by universal laws of Being: the work of the priest and especially the monk "more valuable" by the labor of ordinary layman, because such labor is the dedication of the electedies of God, devotees who confess higher ministry shape - Direct ministry Creator.

The world of values \u200b\u200bof the Middle Ages included and category authority. According to J. Le Goff, they manage the spiritual life of society. The feeling of his own discontenancy gave birth to a sense of insecurity and the need to rely on the past, on the experience of predecessors. The axiological system of medieval culture places us a certain hierarchy authorities. The first place here, undoubtedly, is given to the life and acts of the "exemplary personality" - Jesus Christ, then follow the Mother of God and the apostles, the saints and fathers of the church. Following these examples from the past is the key to the virtuous life of the people of the present. In the most consistent form, the practice of links found an expression in theology: here the authority of "personalities" was distributed to a text hierarchy. The highest authority was the Holy Scripture (especially the New Testament), then the sacred legend (Resolutions of the Universal Church Cathedrals, which secured the dogmatic foundations of the Christian faith), Patriote (works of the fathers of the Church), the agiographic texts (saints). At the same time, the Latin West and the Byzantine East presented themselves with a circle of leading authorities, which was coordinated with the Catholic or Orthodox Church Dogmatics.

Despite the unity of fundamental value orientations, in the culture of the Middle Ages two value-grazing paradigmscorresponding to the two "worlds" of European culture - Western and East. It does not have to doubt that Christianity in its east and west embodiments (respectively, Orthodox and Catholic) was the main system-forming factor in the formation of these paradigms. Without taking into account how the formation of two these currents was being formed within the once of unified Christianity (dependent, in turn, from many cultural and civilizational factors - see above), consider the main, in our opinion, the discrepancy between the values \u200b\u200bnamed here.

A characteristic feature of Western mentality stands rationalism, which is expressed in recognition as a leading principle of comprehending the validity of logical, rational tools, while the Byzantine-Orthodox mentality has advanced as a primacy irrational, intuitive-emotional, spiritual-mystical Comprehensive peace based on a virtuous merger of a man's soul with the world of divine entities. So, in Western (Catholic) theology, the line of rational God-knowledge (Justin, Clement, Alexandrian, Origen, Thomas Akvinsky, etc.), ultimately the anti-indentalistal line (Augustine Aurelius, Bernard Clervossky) was clearly traced. For the first characteristic, one way or another to recognize the role of mind both to prove the existence of God and for the admission of people to faith.

The Orthodox theology in one otherwise interpreted the problem of relation faith and Mind: Vera here is understood not as a way to know the existence of God, but as a direct connection with him, asked by the sincere need of a person in the Divine. Moreover, in the Russian theological (also Orthodox) tradition, an attempt to seek evidence of the existence of God is considered as doubtful in the foundations of the Christian faith, leading a person to disappear from the church (A.S. Khomyakov). So, the problem of knowledge is replaced in Orthodoxy the problem of experience, the feeling of God, actual in Catholicism.

Logical and theoretical approach to the acts of God and practical activities a person who entrenched in the Catholic mentality contributed to the understanding of being as a place of application of forces and abilities first of all of the person himself, which means that the appearance in the value system of such a orientation as activism. The condemnation of the originality and the personifia of the person, therefore, did not exclude the recognition of its activity, understood as the improvement and achieving salvation, depending not only from the Divine grace, but also from the efforts of the person himself. In this system of values, it is consecrated and in the end, already in a new time, turns into a single and higher form of serving God (Protestantism).

Catholicism seeks God from the world, while Orthodoxy is from God to the world. By virtue of this, the Orthodox Axiological system implies not so much human activity aimed at converting life, as an activity aimed at justifying life. Therefore, the worldly human activity is not only not welcomed, but also perceived skeptically, but it is condemned. Such an understanding does not deny the value of labor activity, which is considered to be this purpose for this purpose, but it believes its capabilities, since the main decision remains unable to man, but for divine providence. East Christian consciousness as a whole contemplatively, in which one can see the continuation of the ancient Greek paradigm of culture; West Christian - active, and this is the continuation of the Roman tradition.

The activity and pragmatic principle in the Catholic malfunction determined a large role in organizing and ordering began both in secular and in the clerical medium. And in the other case, the relationship of people among themselves is subordinated to the strict and rather tough system of rules and regulations, where the limits of the competence of each competencies are distinctly contacted, the roles, roles, and human functions in this hierarchy. At the same time, as brilliantly showed S.S. Averintsev, the regulation of relationships in the West was somewhat compensated by the introduction and compliance with the rules of courtesy, due to which, at least, the feelings of the culture of the culture were forced to be unquestioned by the installations acting on it. In this sense, Catholicism is waiting for the person first discipline, Whereas Orthodoxy - sincereness.

In different ways in the Orthodox and Catholic dyed looks value understanding of property relations. Early Christianity, relying on biblical texts, condemned the comprehension and wealth, however, from

The term "Middle Ages" - Translation from Lat Medium Aevum (Middle Ages) - was first introduced by Italian Humanists in the Renaissance Epoch. Roman historian XV century. Flavio Bondo, who wrote the "story from the fall of Rome", called the "Wed century" the period that separated his era of antiquity. In the XVII century Professor Keller introduced the term "Middle Ages" in general periodization of global history, dividing it on antiquity, Middle Ages and a new time. The chronological framework of the division of the Roman PMA Western and Eastern (395 at theodosia I) to the fall of Constantinople under the blows of the Turks in 1453 in the XVII in the concept of "Middle Ages" there were new, most advantage of derogatory accents, the beginning of the new time, respectively, was associated with the invention of typography , the discovery of America, subsequently the Eastrva began to be understood as the time of the domination of the feudal, or lossy, system of public relations in the Wednesday. From the point of view of culture, the Middle Ages is the period between the disappearance of the ancient schools and the introduction of universal school education in the XIX century, the Middle Ages can and should be divided into intermediate periods. For example, it is possible to distinguish early Middle Ages (from IV to IX century), which includes the late antiquity and the formation of the feudal system; Classic Middle Ages (from X to XIV century), the time of the great rise to which the Middle Ages should be reduced if we want to preserve its narrow definition; Later, the Middle Ages, or the time of crisis, shook Europe in the XIV-XVI centuries; The era of the absolute monarchy, which led to the extinction of the feudal system, which completed its existence between the English and French revolutions.

The term "mid-century" (more precisely, the "middle age" - from Lat. Medium Aevum) originated in Italy in the XV-XVI centuries. In the circles of humanists'. At different stages of development historical science The concept of "middle ages" was investing various content. Historians of the XVII - XVIII centuries, who secured the division of history on ancient, middle and new, considered the average century by a period of deep cultural decline in counterweights of the high rise of culture in the ancient world and in a new time.

Considering the historical process as a natural change of social and economic formations, historians-Marxists understand the Middle Ages first of all, as the time of emergence, domination and decline of the feudal socio-economic formation, which changed the slave-owned or primitive purchase system, and then in a new time, giving way to historical arena capitalism.

Periodization of the history of the Middle Ages. The transition to feudalism from different nations occurred at the same time.

Middle Ages

Therefore, the chronological framework of the medieval period of unequal for different continents and even individual countries. In the countries of Western Europe, the Istokov Middle Ages on the periodization adopted in Soviet historiography is treated in the second half of the V c. The Western Roman Empire, which died as a result of the crisis of the slave-owned system, who made it defenseless in front of the barbaric invasions of the Germanic and Slavic tribes. These invasions led to the disintegration of the empire and the gradual elimination of the slave-building in its territory, became the beginning of a deep social coup separating the Middle Ages from ancient history. For the history of Byzantium, the beginning of the Middle Ages consider the IV century, when the East Roman Empire took shape as an independent state.

In Soviet historiography, the history of the Middle Ages is customary to divide into three main periods: I. End V - middle of the XI century. - Early Middle Ages (early referral period), when feudalism only developed as a dominant method of production; II. Mid XI century. - End of XV century. - a period of developed feudalism, when the feudal system achieved the highest heyday; III. XVI in. - The first half of the XVII century. - a period of decomposition of feudalism, when capitalist relations are born in the depths of feudal society and begin to develop.

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Historians of the Marxist School, in particular - Soviet, took the Middle Ages time with V c. AD in the middle of the XVII century. AD This was due to the fact that before the XVII century. The term "Middle Ages" was not in the use of scientists, as well as with the strengthening of European capitalism on this line.

The first writer who used the term "Middle Ages" in the name of his work ("Historia Medii Aevi", 1685) was the German Jesuitchristophore, Keller (November 22, 1638 - 4 June 1707), who divided the universal history on ancient, secondary and new. This innovation met the resistance of modern historians to him, especially the histories of theologians, traditionally shared world history in monarchies, following and developing instructions of the prophetic book of Daniel. Later, some historians transferred the end of the Middle Ages at 1453 (Drop Constantinople), 1517 (the beginning of the Reformation) and even 1648 (the end of the 30-year war).

Periodization of the Middle Ages in Western Europe

This division is conditional, and rather has high-quality historical importance than the exact chronic.

In the real time, in traditional history, the Middle Ages, said by historian Lesher, is most adopted (information about which has not yet been found), which paid the Millennium Middle Ages with V c. by the XV century AD, dividing it to subheadings:

Early Middle Ages from 476 AD. - Dates of the phantom overthrow by the Odakrom of the last Roman emperor Romula Augustus, according to IX century. AD

High medieval with x in. AD By the XIII century. AD

Later Middle Ages with the XIV century. AD by the XV century AD

What events are connected by the boundaries of the subsoilies today are already forgotten, as well as the work of the first periodizers - Ilezher's Cellaris. It is possible that the end of the Middle Ages was associated with historians of the XVII century. With the opening of America, or with the end of the 7th millennium in the Byzantine era.

At the very last time, among Russian historians, in connection with their partial awareness with chronological ideas N.A. Morozova and with a new chronology, there was a hypothesis about the absence of dark centuries in the Middle Ages. They suggest that the scientific and technical progress of society passed in the Middle Ages, only no documents were preserved from it and there were no material traces left.

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Middle Ages as a stage of global history

The concept of "middle age" was introduced by Italian humanists. They thought they were reviving culture Ancient Greece and ancient Rome. The period between the fall of the Roman Empire and their own time was perceived by a period of cultural decline, religious fanaticism and illiteracy, "dark centuries".

Common chronological framework of the period:

for Europe - Ser. V c. - Ser. XV century

For the East - 1st centuries. AD - 19th century

The chronology of the European Middle Ages:

dark time - early Middle Ages (VI - IX centuries);

the average period of the Middle Ages (X - XI centuries);

high (mature, developed, classical) Middle Ages (XII - XV centuries).

Currently, scientists believe that the beginning of the Middle Ages process refers to the period of early Christianity and does not completely ends even in the XVII century, which makes the specified periodization quite conditional: "... today I would insist on expanding the time frame, on the" Duty Middle Ages ", covering the temporary framework The era, which begins with the II - IV century of late Antiquity ... The Middle Ages lasted, essentially until XVIII in ... "(Jacques Le Hoff)

General characteristics of the Middle Ages.

Medieval society - Agricultural society based:

on manual work,

feudal socio-economic relations.

The basis of the economy – farmpeasant (direct manufacturer)

for private property Feodalov

to the main means of production of that time - earth.

Features of society:

1) conservative General value-worldviews:

the steady and low-live system of values \u200b\u200band ideas, based on religious commandments and the teaching of the Church (medieval man, is largely focused on its inner world, intensive spiritual life, the creation of prerequisites for the "salvation" of the soul, the achievements of the "God's kingdom";

the desire for internal unity and external extraction, corporate closure of classes and other social groups, the weak development of individualism.

2) internal dynamism of society:

complex ethnogenetic processes - the origin and formation of modern peoples: French, Germans, British, Spaniards, Italians, Chekhov, Poles, Bulgarians, Russians, Serbs, etc.

culturo-creative processes:

Creating a new urban lifestyle

Creating high samples of spiritual and artistic culture (including institutions of scientific knowledge and education, among which the University Institute should be especially allocated).

All this, combined, gave a powerful impetus for the development of world civilization.

Basic civilizational regions The epochs of the Middle Ages were Asia and Europe.

In Asia In accordance with specific features:

cultural heritage

geographical environment

economy management systems

social organization

formed arab-Muslim civilization - The historical success of the eastern type of civilization.

Distinctive features arab Muslim Civilizationrelated to the peculiarities of its culture.

Based on arab-Muslimcultures:

arabic,

merilion Islam,

cult Islam.

Islam (Muslim) (Arab. - "Submissivity") arose in the VII century. n. e. On the Arabian Peninsula.

The basis of Muslim religion:

faith in a single god of Allah and Mohammed as his envoy,

the steady observance of the five major religious regulations, the so-called "Patches of Faith":

Printing during the service of the main symbol of faith: "There is no god except Allah and Mohammed Messenger His",

Daily fivefold prayer (Namaz),

Observance of the post (Uraz) per month Ramazan,

Mandatory payment of tax (worst)

Making pilgrimage in Mecca (Hajj).

In Islam, Vera is strongly pronounced in the divine predestination, the idea of \u200b\u200bunconditional submission of the Divine Will, which imposed a deep imprint on the whole way of life and Islamic culture.

Islam was formed in the Arab environment. Motherland Islam are the Arab city of Mecca and Medina. The adoption of Islam Arabic tribes contributed to their consolidation, a powerful state increased on the basis of Islam - Arab Khalifat, where Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Khiva, Bukhara, Afghanistan, a significant part of Spain, Armenia, Georgia were increased during his heyday.

Islam contributed not only to the political consolidation of the peoples included in the Arab Caliphate, but also facilitated trade relations and the economic interaction of various countries in the nature of the economies of the regions. Active trade in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean stimulated the development of crafts and agriculture. Arab-Muslim world was distinguished by a high level of urbanization (cities development). Baghdad was considered one of the greatest cities of the then world. Here they traded the forest, porcelain, furs, spices, silk, wine, all that was produced in India, East Africa, China, Central Asia. Unusually peculiar and bright culture was created in the Middle Ages at the Arab Muslim East. Arabic "zero" added to the Babylonian digital system made a genuine revolution in mathematics.

Arabic astronomy, medicine, algebra, philosophy, undoubtedly, were an order of magnitude higher than European science of that time. The field irrigation system, some agricultural crops (rice, citrus) were borrowed by Europeans from Arabs. Arab-Muslim influence on medieval Europe was mainly limited to borrowing of individual innovations and discoveries. The reason is one - religious differences. Christian Europe preferred to ignite the religious hatred of Islam, seeing the embodiment of the Antichrist in Mohammed. Preaching against "wrong" laid the beginning cross hike (End of the XI-End of XIII centuries).

In Europe Middle Ages - this is the period of the formation of a new form of Western civilization - european Christian civilization. European civilization is formed in the territory of the former Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire split into two parts:

Eastern (Byzantine) Roman Empire.

Western Roman Empire.

The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist as a result of the internal contradictions and the invasion of the so-called "barbarians" in 476. Therefore, civilizational processes in both parts of the Roman Empire, along with general laws, had significant differences. As a result, these differences were formed two varieties of European civilization :

east

western.

Formation of European civilization happened as a result:

synthesis antique civilization and barbaric lifestyle

during processes: \u003d Romanization,

Christianization

The formation of statehood and culture of new nations of Europe.

Cultural base European civilization isantiquity .

Byzantium never broke out with antiquity: \u003d culture,

Economic activities

Political institutions of Byzantium

largely \u003d relied on an ancient tradition

There were organic forms of its development.

Most the originality of the Byzantine lifestyle associated with the form of Christianity in Byzantium - orthodoxy.

Christianity and during antiquity did not constitute a single organization. On the territory of the Roman Empire there was a number of Christian churches that had versal, ritual and organizational differences. There was a fierce struggle for hegemony in the Christian world between the leadership of these churches in the Christian world. Most active this struggle was conducted head of the Western Roman Church - Pope Rimsky and head of the Byzantine Church - Konstantinople Patriarch. Pope declared himself a governor of Jesus Christ, the successor of the Apostle Peter, the Supreme Pontiff of the Universal (Catholic) Church, Patriarch Konstantinople accepted the title of universal parliament of Orthodox, that is, the true Christian Church, since he recognized the decision of only the first seven Universal Cathedrals of Christian churches.

Formal act of split Christianity The Catholic and Orthodox Church was mutual anathema (church curse), which was betrayed by each other Pope and Konstantinople Patriarch on June 16, 1054

The Byzantine Empire as an independent state disappeared in the XV century. But she laid the foundations of Eastern European civilization, the carriers of which are Russian, Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs, Ukrainians, Belarusians and many other nations of Europe.

The formation of the Western European Catholic civilization is associated with the great relocation of peoples - the invasion of the Roman Empire of the so-called barbarians: Gunnian, Germanic, Slavic, Alansky, later Turkic and other tribes. It should not exaggerate the degree of backwardness, "barbarism" of these peoples.

TOIII- V. explosive Many "barbaric" peoples:

had developed agriculture,

owned crafts, including metallurgy,

were organized into tribal unions on the principles of military democracy,

supported lively trading contacts with the Romans and each other.

With III century. n. e. Separate German tribal unions settled on the territory of the Roman Empire and as allied federals included in the Roman army. Their tribal aristocracy received a good ancient education, sought a significant impact in the political life of the Roman society and in military leadership. Thus, to the beginning of the great relocation of peoples in Western Europe, a rather intensive process of novelification of barbaric peoples has already been mastered. Mass invasion of barbaric tribes at the initial stage of the medieval era to some extent slowed down this process. Combasive wars, the destruction of the former statehood of the Western Roman Empire was accompanied by decline and the destruction of cultural centers - Cities, destruction of cultural monuments, reducing the overall cultural level of this region.

However, during the early Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome these consequences of the grip wars and revive.

IN V-VII BB. formation of new states on the captured barbaric tribes of the territory;

VII-X V.. the flourishing of new states :

- kingdom, and then empire Frankov (higher development during the Board of Charles Great (768-814)),

- kingdom of Germanians (In 962, at the king, Otton I was transformed into the sacred Roman Empire).

New government entities for regulating social relations conducted great law-conducting activities (Karl Great Capitulory, etc.), in which he largely relied on Roman law. With the court of the emperor, special scientists are formed by special scientists, in which thinkers from different countries participate, the ancient Latin and Greek manuscripts are collected and corresponded, and schools are being created for the preparation of competent clergy and staff of officials (judges, secretaries, scribes, etc.) .

The creation of strong state entities begin to revive trade and craft, which contribute to the rapid rise of cities and the associated urban culture. Scientific and training centers are beginning to be issued in the classic medieval centers - the first universities arise.

The process of Christianization of German peoples.

The spiritual basis of the whole European civilization is Christianity.

In the context of the decay of the Roman Empire, its political and economic institutions, the decline of culture christianity and his organizations - Catholic and Orthodox Church - For many centuries were the only common for all countries and peoples of Europe spiritual and social institutions .

Christianity formed:

unified worldview

moral standards

values \u200b\u200band samples of behavior

and the Catholic and Orthodox Church were not only spiritual, but also very influential political organizations.

therefore the process of becoming European civilization largely presented

christianization process :

the admission of pagan peoples = to christian culture

Beliefs and customs

entry into Christian organizations - Catholic and Orthodox churches.

As early as the Roman Empire, the Church led a wide missionary activity on the periphery of the empire among the barbarians. At the end of the IV century, and especially in the V century, many of the neighboring barbaric tribes have already accepted Christianity. Later, the newly educated medieval states conducted a complicated policy. The capture of certain nations, as a rule, was accompanied by their violent Christianization.

On the influence of the church on state affairs in Western Europe, the fact that medieval kings sought to legalize their governing position, having received the signs of royal power from the hands of Pope or his representatives during the coronation rite. In the eyes of Western European peoples, the Roman dad remained the only authority of the shaded, but not disappeared by the authority of the Great Rome. In 800, the King of Frankov Karl Great was crowned in Rome as an emperor Romans. In 962, the Saxon King Otton I was crowned with the Roman dad as the Emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire.

The Catholic Church has tremendous material resources. She belonged to a significant amount of land, large financial resources. For a long period, she was struggling with secular states for political power. In 751, in Western Europe, a theocratic state was created on the territory of Italy (Equal Exarchate), in which Pope at the same time was a spiritual and secular leader. The jurisdiction of the spiritual authority of the Pope was not limited to the equal exarch. She applied to the whole Western Europe.

Throughout the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church has repeatedly performed with ideas that initiated wide social movements. The brightest of such ideas is the idea liberation of the coffin of the Lord and Christian shrines from the wrongwhich was based on the so-called crusades.

The Catholic Church occupied an exceptional situation in the field of education and science. In the Middle Age the centers of education were monasteries. Monasteries had rich libraries, scripting (paperwork workshops), contained primary schools. Under the complete control of the church were also medieval foci of scientific research and higher education - universities.

So, on the basis of economic, political and cultural processes in the medieval world, the main civilization regions: = arab-Muslim,

= western European

\u003d Eastern European.

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