The concept of the method and methodology. Research methods
Relevance, goals, objectives and content of educational discipline. General ideas about the methodology of science. Theory, method and technique, their relationship. Classical and postclassical paradigm of science. The concept of the methodology of pedagogical science. The subject of the pedagogy methodology. The need for methodology. Methodological culture of the teacher and teacher-explorer. Sources of methodological support for pedagogical research. Methodological research. Methodological reflection. Characteristics of the principles of psychological and pedagogical research: principles and requirements for research activities; principle of objectivity; principle of essential analysis; genetic principle; The principle of unity of logical and historical; principle of conceptual unity; principle of integrity; The principle of the combination of existing and due. Scientific approaches to the study of pedagogical phenomena: a systematic approach in the study of the socio-pedagogical process; cybernetic and synergistic approaches; meaningful and formalized approaches; aspect and multidimensional approach to the study of the pedagogical process; Activity approach.
The concept of the methodology of psychological and pedagogical research.
General characteristics of psychological and pedagogical research.
Slide 4-5
1. The concept of research methodology
Slide 4 - concept of methodology
In the terminological aspect, the word "methodology" originates from Greek methodos. - the path of research and logos. - concept, teaching . Those. In the literal translation, we can say that the methodology is the doctrine of the study paths.
In a modern sense, the methodology is the doctrine of a logical structure, a logical organization, methods and means of activity. The methodology is embodied in the organization and regulation of all types of human activity, not only the scientific, but also technical, pedagogical, political, managerial, aesthetic. It is universal, but is specified in relation to various fields of practical and theoretical activities 2.
From philosophical positions, the methodology is defined as a science on the most general principles of knowledge and transformation of objective reality, paths and methods of this process.
Slide 5.
In science, sub Methodologyunderstand the doctrine on the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific and educational activities, as well as a set of methods used in any science "3.
The methodology of science determines the aggregate and discloses the essence of the characteristics of the scientific research (theme, relevance, problem, purpose, tasks, hypothesis, etc.), gives the characteristics of the set of research methods, means and methods, forms an idea of \u200b\u200bthe logic of the study - the sequence of researcher's actions in the process of solving scientific tasks.
Slide 6 - methodology levels
In the structure of the methodological knowledge of E.G. Yudin highlights four levelsforming a complex cogination system 4.
First, philosophical level of methodology, Compose general principles of knowledge and categorical system of science as a whole. It defines ideological approaches to the process of knowledge and transformation of reality and acts as a meaningful basis of all methodological knowledge. At the same time, various philosophical teachings are simultaneously coexist: existentialism (existentialism from Lat.Existentia - existence - the philosophy of existence; the direction of social philosophy, which emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. Existentialism seeks to comprehend being as a certain direct, not dismandable integrity The subject and the object. Highlighting as initial and genuine being, the experiencing itself, existentialism understands it as an experience of the subject of his "Genesis in the World" (existential)), pragmatism (pragmatism from Greek. Pragma is the case - the negation of the need to know objective laws of reality and recognition of true Only what practically useful results gives.), dialectical materialism, neo-studies (neo-studies - the philosophical doctrine of Catholicism characterized: - recognition of the existence of nature independent of the human consciousness, which at the same time are considered to be products of creative d the womb of God; - proclaiming the superiority of the truth of revelation over the truths of the mind; - theological interpretations of scientific theories, etc.), neopositivism (neopositisism - philosophical and sociological orientation, based on the principles of logical positivism. Neasopitivism is characterized by: - \u200b\u200bconsideration of social phenomena based on laws common to natural and social and historical reality (naturalism); - using Methods of natural science in social studies (science); - freedom from value judgment (methodological objectivity); - the operational definition of concepts (operationalism); - with a study of subjective factors through behavior (behaviorism); - the desire to quantify social phenomena (quantification) and others.
Second, general scientific level of methodology It is characterized by an approach to life phenomena as systems having a certain structure and their laws of functioning. It is based on concepts, scientific approaches applied to all or to most scientific disciplines (systemic approach, activity approach, characteristics of different types of scientific research, their stages and elements: hypothesis, object and subject matter, goal, tasks, etc. ).
Third, specific scientific level of methodology Represents a set of methods, principles of research and procedures used in one or another special scientific discipline. The methodology of special science includes not only the issues of previous levels, but also problems specific to scientific knowledge in this area. For example, for the Pedagogy Methodology, this is the problem of the ratio of pedagogy and psychology, indicators of scientifically work in the field of pedagogy, etc.
Fourth, technological level of methodology Makes up the methodology and technique of research, i.e. A set of procedures that provide a reliable empirical material and its primary processing, after which it can be included in an array of scientific knowledge. At this level, methodological knowledge is clearly pronounced normative.
Slide 7 - theory, method and technique, their relationship.
Important to understand the essence of the methodology of science, its structure, scientific research have such categories as the theory, method, technique. Consider them from the standpoint of modern science.
Slide 8 - theory of theory
Theory (from Greek. theoria. - observation, research) - system of basic ideas in a particular branch of knowledge; The form of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic idea of \u200b\u200bregularities and significant relations of reality 5.
The theory is considered as a system of generalized reliable knowledge about a different fragment of real reality, which describes, explains and predicts the functioning of a certain set of components of its objects.
Object theory - what describes the theory, i.e. A combination of real phenomena.
Subject of theory - What explains the theory, i.e. Laws and relationships operating in the structure of the object.
The structure of the theory includes: ideas - starting positions (binding material); concepts (describing material); laws or patterns (explaining material); Principles, rules, recommendations (prescribing material).
Slide 9 - the concept of scientific knowledge and research methods
Method of scientific knowledge reality The method of knowledge of the studied reality, which allows you to solve the tasks and achieve the goal of search activities (Pzdamansky V.I.)
Research methods - Etracrames, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge and study of reality phenomena 6. Methods of pedagogical research – these are ways to study pedagogical phenomena, obtaining scientific information about them in order to establish natural relations, relations and construction of scientific theories "7.
Slot 10 - research techniques - Characteristic, most consumable combinations of methods, standard research procedures 8.
In relation to the pedagogy Sloshenin V.A. Gives the following definition: " Research methodology - This is a complex of theoretical and empirical methods, the combination of which makes it possible with the greatest accuracy to explore the educational process "9.
Slide 11- interrelation of theory and methods
With the help of methods, each science produces information about the subject matter, analyzes and processes the data obtained, is included in the system of known knowledge. The richer the arsenal of some science methods, the more successful the activities of scientists.
Slide 12 is a classic and post-classical paradigm of science.
First of all, we will deal with the concepts of science and paradigm.
Slide 13.
Slide 14.
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Paradigm Comes from Greek paradeigma. and translates as an example, sample. In modern dictionaries under the paradigm it is understood: 1) gram. Sample of declining or hiding, system forms of the same word; 2) an example from history taken to proof, comparison 11; 3) the system of basic scientific achievements (theories, methods), according to which the research practice of scientists is organized in a specific field of knowledge in this period (the change of the educational paradigm is a change, transformation of the education system); 4) in the philosophy of education - a set of prerequisites that determine a specific scientific study (knowledge) and recognized in this step 12; 5) a set of basic provisions and principles underlying one or another theory with a specific categorical apparatus and recognized by a group of scientists. 13 . |
Slide 15 - Classical Science Paradigm
In the most general form, the development of science is based on classical and post-classical paradigms.
Classic paradigm Science has been inherent in scientific research up to the end of the 19th century, undergoing changes as human society develops. The classical paradigm is based on determinism, unambiguity, completion, objectivity, continuity, closure.
Scientific discoveries, the level of development of science, culture, society, the economy led to the transition to postclassical paradigm Science, which provides accounting in scientific research of factors such as randomness, complementarity, relativity, discreteness, self-organization, development, openness, nonlinearity, multigid, subjectivity, incompleteness.
Slides 16-17 - Stages of development of science
Slide 18. General characteristics of the study
Slide 19 - the concept of psychological and pedagogical research
Slide 20 - Essence and Research Levels
Scientific research - the special form of the process of knowledge, such systematic and targeted learning objects in which funds and methods of science are used and which is completed by the formation of knowledge of the objects studied 14.
In terms of its nature and content, pedagogical studies are divided into fundamental, applied and developing 15.
Fundamental research Aims to solve the strategic tasks of the development of psychological and pedagogical science, to substantiate theoretical conclusions that will make serious changes in the logic of the development of science itself. Distinctive signs of fundamental studies are: theoretical relevance; conceptuality; historicism; Critical analysis of scientifically insolvent provisions; the use of techniques adequate to the nature of the acquisite objects of reality; Novelty and scientific accuracy of the results obtained.
Applied research Aimed at solving operational tasks, for an in-depth study of individual parties to the pedagogical process, the establishment of regularities of multilateral pedagogical practice. The main signs of applied research are: approximately to current practice requests; Comparative limitations of the sampling of the study; The efficiency of the implementation of the results and others.
Development Aims to substantiate specific scientific and practical recommendations that take into account already known theoretical provisions. Developments are based on applied research and advanced pedagogical experience. Their main features are: target orientation; concreteness; certainty; Reparatively small volume.
Slide 27 - Research Complexity. The complexity, the multi-facetedness of social processes, the need for a large number of existing versatile factors requires different or integrated research on the subject or integrated research. First of all, they include sociological, psychological, medical and pedagogical.
Sociological research aims to identify the population requests, the relationship of parents and the public to innovations, assessing the activities of the educational institution or the educational system, social aspects of the activities of the institution (prestige, the conditions for the implementation of social order, adaptation of students and graduates in society, etc.).
In psychological research the most effective mechanisms for mental development, psychological rehabilitation of pupils, multiplying their creative potential, the conditions of self-realization, are determined by the initial positions for individual and personal-oriented approaches, for tracking the results of training and education.
Valeological and Medical Studies aims are aimed at tracking the health of pupils and teachers, the effectiveness of measures for its protection, in search of options for education, preserving and strengthening the health of students and pupils.
Pedagogical research Aims on the organization and management of educational, pedagogical processes and systems, to solve pedagogical tasks, issues of selection of program options, the definition of principles, technologies, methods, organizational forms of education and training. Under the pedagogical study, the process and the result of scientific activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the patterns of education, its structure and mechanisms, content, principles and technologies 16 are understood.
Based on the modern paradigm of education, when the tasks of personality development are priority, any productive study in the educational field should be psychological and pedagogical, disclose and explore the unity of external and internal factors of education, pedagogical conditions and methods of forming motivation, installations, value orientation, creative thinking, Intuitions, personality beliefs, the conditions for her healthy mental and physical development. Therefore, almost all applied studies related to the functioning and development of the educational process and educational institutions are a comprehensive psychological and pedagogical (often socio-psychological-pedagogical, medical and pedagogical, etc.).
Slide 22-23 - form of reflection of pedagogical reality. Three forms of reflection of pedagogical activity, as a special form of public consciousness, are distinguished. Currently, pedagogical activity is reflected in science, in artistic and figuratively, in the process of spontaneously empirical knowledge. Consider what their content and what are the differences between them.
Scientific knowledge. Scientific research is a specific type of cognitive activity, during which new, previously not known parties, relationships, properties of the object being studied using a variety of methods. At the same time, the main task of scientific research is to identify internal relations and relations, disclosure of patterns and the driving forces for the development of pedagogical processes or phenomena. Scientific research relies on the appropriate methodological base, which characterizes the scientific approach, determines the logic of the study, manifests itself in its characteristics, methods and results.
The advantages of scientific knowledge are in the breadth of the possibilities of practical application, a high degree of reliability, objective and irrefutable explanation of the mechanism of impact on the scientific language and in the context of all scientific knowledge. However, not always scientific knowledge can be immediately applied in practice.
In artistic-shaped In the ratio of universal and personal experience, personal experience is greater importance. This form is reflected in journalistic pedagogical works. The main form of artistic generalization is typification, the main instrument of which is an artistic image. The difference between the artistic and figurative form of reflection of reality from scientific is shown in Table 2.1.
Slide 23.
Table 2.1.
Comparative characteristics of science and artistic creativity
Visually showing this difference V.V. Kraevsky writes: "The difference between these methods of reflection of reality will see immediately if they consider: the laws of Archimedon or Newton would be open if these great scientists were not born at all. It is clear that the objective patterns would be detected by anyone else. But the novel "War and the world" would not be written if there was no lion of Tolstoy. We are not noticed that the artist of the word, whatever the plots for their works he chose, all his life actually writes about himself. At the same time, with all the differences in characters, temperament and abilities of scientists, their final product - scientific knowledge - alienated from them, and in the mathematical formula it is impossible to judge the identity of its creator "17.
Spiritual empirical knowledge.Spiritual-empirical knowledge primary. It always existed and exists now: the acquisition of knowledge is not separated from practical activities of people. The source of knowledge is a variety of practical actions with objects. Of own experience People learn the properties of these objects, assimilate the best ways to act with them - their processing, use. The spontaneous-empirical knowledge retains its meaning because it is not some minor, but a full knowledge, tested by centuries-old experience. Spiritual-empirical knowledge lives in folk pedagogy. The wisdom of generations left us many pedagogical councils in the form of proverbs and sayings. They reflect certain pedagogical patterns. Knowledge of this kind receives teacher himself in the process of working with children. He recognizes how it is better to go into a situation of a certain kind, which results gives a particular pedagogical action.
The main differences between scientific and spontaneous-empirical cognition are shown in Table 2 (developed by Gerasimov I.G. 18).
Table 2.2.
Comparative characteristics of scientific and spontaneous empirical knowledge
|
Spirit-empirical knowledge |
Scientific knowledge |
|
1. Cognitive activity is carried out by all practical activities. Getting knowledge is not separated from their use. |
1. Cognitive activity is carried out by special groups of people. The form of its implementation is a scientific study. The volume of study of objects directly not included in the practical activity of people is increasing |
|
2. There are no special means of knowledge |
2. Applied special means: mathematical, logical; Modeling, the creation of theories, hypotheses, experimentation |
|
3. Knowledge is recorded in a natural language in the form of a variety of judgments and allegations, proverbs and sayings. There are no special criteria for formulating and testing knowledge. |
3. Knowledge (laws, theories) are recorded on the basis of certain criteria. Not only natural language, but also specially created symbolic and logical means |
|
4. Cognitive activity is not a systematic and targeted nature |
4. Scientific research is systematic and targeted; It is aimed at solving problems that are consciously formulated as a goal |
The differences in the spontaneous-empirical and scientific knowledge shown in Table 2.2, their capabilities and specificity are clearly viewed by the example of V.V. Kraevsky: "Some idea of \u200b\u200bthe specifics of these two kinds of knowledge and their results - knowledge gives a story published in our periodical press in the 1970s. In 822, one Persian instruction told the world that loose stones (harmonious slices of wool, which are in the stomachs of mountain goats and other mannocipers) can serve as an excellent antidote. Subsequently, the English queen Elizabeth, swedish king Eric IV, lowering the ring with such a stone in wine before drinking it, protected itself from poisoning. In the Epoch of Enlightenment, this custom was ridiculed as prejudice, and they forgot about the stone. But in the 1970s. American Chemist Gustav Arrhenius showed that these stones are identical to the mineral of Brushlit (acid phosphate calcium). It has a property by ion exchange to replace its phosphates with arsenic acid salts. And in the past times, the main poison was just arsenic. This example, you can show both the advantages and disadvantages of each of the two types of knowledge "19.
Slide 24 - Research
The process of knowledge of the objective world is always carried out with the help of historically developed methods, techniques. The correct understanding of the studied can be obtained only with the right approach to study, only with certain research methods.
Method - This is a way to build and substantiate the system of philosophical and scientific knowledge, is the path of research and practical transformation of reality. This is a system of rules, principles and techniques for the study of phenomena and patterns of nature development, society and thinking or practical conversion activities of a person. The content of the method is some methods of research or practical activities that provide knowledge or changes to the subject are determined by the laws of the object itself. Thus, any reasonable action is necessarily associated with certain methods of solving it, that is, with a specific method.
Only through the use of various methods, human activity can be effective. Describing the role of the correct method in scientific knowledge, the English philosopher-materialist Francis Bacon compared it with a lantern, which covers the traveler the path in the dark. The founder of empiricism emphasized that even a lame, walking along the road, is ahead of who runs on off-road. Such an opinion was adhered to P. Laplace, who believed that learn the method that the scientist enjoyed, making a brilliant discovery, is equally important for science than this discovery itself.
Any scientific method is not a free choice of research techniques: its techniques and principles are determined by the peculiarities and patterns of the subject of the research itself. The method is only then correct, scientific, when it correctly reflects the objective patterns of the phenomenon or the object being studied.
Distinguish experimental and theoretical methods, Ev-ristichny and algorithmic and quantitative and high-quality Depending on the forms of determination, they can be unambiguous deterministic and probabilistic.
Method has objective basis And what it fully meets the objective laws of reality, the more effective its use. But at the same time there is a method and subjective side: It is formed by a person and embodies its aspirations, aspirations, goals, is used by it as an instrument of knowledge of knowledge and conversion of the object.
But whatever the scientific method, in itself it does not determine completely success in the study of reality. Not only is important, but also the experience of its use. Therefore, the task is to learn how to properly and skillfully apply one or another scientific method. In the process of scientific knowledge, lenterns and a variety of methods are used. All methods of scientific research can be divided into three main species, or groups, depending on whether they are used in a narrow or wider area. These are universal philosophical methods of knowledge, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Universal Methods that operate in all areas of knowledge and practice and regulate and direct various cognitive and conscious activities. The objective basis is the general philosophical patterns of understanding the surrounding world, the person himself, his understanding and the process of knowledge, and the process of transforming the world by man. Such a method of knowledge, along with philosophical methods, there is a method of materialistic dialectics, because it matters for knowledge in any sphere of reality, permeates the entire cognitive process. Philosophical universal methods set the general direction, the principles of approach to the study of objects. Materialism, for example, focuses on the disclosure of the patterns of objective connections, dialectic - for an analysis of contradictions.
Of course, the philosophical methods "work" in science are not directly, but through other, more specific methods. For example, the principle of historicism was reflected in biology in the form of an evolutionary teaching, and in astronomy, a combination of cosmogonic hypotheses was spawned.
Together with the universal philosophical method of cognition, there are a number of other sufficiently general methods that are widely used in scientific knowledge, their objective base is the general-flow pattern of cognition, which includes the gnoseological principles. These are primarily among the methods of knowledge applied on different levels Cognition: Either on empirical, or theoretical.
Methods allow to disclose the direction of development of the object and its structure, features of operation at this stage, collect actual material and develop the theory, explore the subject directly or through its model, get high-quality and quantitative characteristics. These methods include: experiment and observation, modeling, hypothetical and deductive, the method of climbing from the abstract to a specific et al. Depending on what level scientific research is carried out and what goals it is prosecuted, apply and appropriate general scientific methods of knowledge. They are divided into three groups: methods of empirical research; Methods used both on empirical and theoretical levels of the study; Methods of theoretical study.
The third group of methods is methods of specific sciences. Each of any developed science, having its own subject of study, uses its special methods that flow from one or another concept, the essence of its object. From here to a special category, specifically scientific or special methods are allocated: methods of physics, chemistry, biology, etc. To such methods include, for example, various methods for analyzing in chemistry, spectroscopy and spectrography in physics; Method of labeled atoms in biology, linear and dynamic programming in mathematics, questioning in specific sociological research etc. The development and differentiation of thinking methods during the deployment of knowledge led to the formation of teachings on methods, to the methodology.
Methodology - The system of principles and methods of organization and construction of theoretical and practical activity, as well as the doctrine of this system. This is a peculiar system of socially tested rules and regulations of knowledge and action that relate to the properties and laws of reality.
The task of accumulation and transmission of social experience required the systematization of the principles, operations, techniques contained in the activity itself. The first methodological knowledge is already on the early levels of cultural development. So, geometry in Ancient Egypt Provided in the form of regulatory prescriptions, the sequence of measurement of geometric areas was determined. With the development of production, technology, art, the methodology becomes the subject of a special theoretical reflection, the form of which is primarily the philosophical understanding of the principles of the organization and regulation of cognitive activity, the allocation of conditions, structures and content of knowledge, as well as ways leading to the truth.
A special place in the development of problems of methodology is owned by Socrates, Platon, Aristotle. Socrates put forward the dialectical nature of thinking as a general extract of truth in the process of compared various representations, concepts, their comparison, dismemberment, determination. Plato sees the meaning of its dialectics of concepts and categories in the search for the principle of each thing. Aristo-Tel analyzed the principles of building judgments, the rules of conclusions and evidence, the issue of determining the deadlines, the role of induction and deduction in achieving the truth. Categories He interpreted as the organizing forms of knowledge, having a dialectic of potential and urgent, form and matter, etc. The Aristotle's logical system created by it was perceived as "Organon" - a universal instrument of true knowledge.
Radical restructuring of spiritual culture during the period of bourgeois revolutions of the XVI-XVIII centuries., The rapid development of natural science demanded significant changes in the methodology. F. Bacon performed against Scholastics, developed an inductive empirical approach to nature phenomena. For a sample of scientific methodology in those days, the principles of geometry and mechanics were recognized. According to Galileem, scientific knowledge should be based on a planned and accurate experiment - both mental and real. Descartes developed the rules of the rationalistic method, among which the first is the requirement to assume only such provisions that are realized obvious and clearly. With intuitively perceived positions by deductive proof, new knowledge is displayed.
English empiricism also has become a significant contribution to the knowledge methodology. For example, Locke tried to develop such methods of thinking that would contribute to the construction of strict empirical science based on sensory experience.
The limitations of both rationalistic and empirical directions in the methodology was discovered by the German classical philosophy, which provided a critical analysis of the conditions of knowledge, its forms and the organizing causes. Kant, Fichte, Shelling, Hegel developed, albeit in an idealistic form, dialectical methodology. Kant critically analyzed the structure and types of human cognitive abilities, delimited constitutive and regulatory principles of knowledge, the relationship between its form and content. The main elements of Kant's teachings about the method - discipline, canon, architectonics and the history of pure mind. He substantiated the need for a "critical" method, allowing to separate scientific knowledge from dogmatism and speculative use of the mind. Dialectics of Hegel has the nature of the general method of knowledge and spiritual activity. Hegel attempted to reveal the contradictions of the development of being and thinking.
The rational principles of the methodology of the previous eras were summarized and processed on a consistently materialistic basis in Marxist philosophy. From the method of analyzing the forms of knowledge by itself, the dialectical method has become a method of the most complete and meaningful study of the development of reality.
The dialectical methodology allows to adequately understand the nature of the relationship between the theory and the method, as well as the role of practice in knowledge. If a theory It is the result of the process of knowledge, the methodology is a way to achieve and build this knowledge. For example, the methodological principle of deterministic explanation of the world is the organizing source of relevant physical, biological, social theories. In turn, these theories can perform a methodological function, that is, being a guide source in research activities.
A new approach to the methodology has made it possible to significantly expand the scope of the methodology and give the philosophical substantiation of the receptions and methods of organizing the entire diversity of human activities. Among the multiple methods, it is necessary to choose the most adequate in terms of solving specific theoretical and practical problems. This gives a methodology an axiological, value aspect, encouraging the methods of both in terms of their truth and their effectiveness.
In the XX century There is a rapid increase in methodological research, the transformation of the methodology into a specialized industry of philosophical knowledge. The company has global problems of ecology, demography, urbanization, cosmos development, which can be solved through the deepening of the methodological identity of various scientific disciplines. These tasks led to the development of such methods and funds that could provide effective interaction and synthesis of methods of various sciences (theoretical cybernetics, systemic approach, the concept of noosphere V. I. Vernadsky et al.).
Neosquestists B. Russell, M. Shlik, L. Wittgenstein, R. Karnap, F. Frank were made to the development of science methodology. Important methodological importance and the concept of the development of scientific knowledge of K. Popper, and the theory of scientific revolutions T. Kun, and the concept of P. Foylandend, and the evolutionary model of Art. Tulmina. The philosophy of science was significantly developed by G. Bashlyl, and A. Whitehead. Comprehensible problems
the ratio of scientific thought and scientific spirit, the concept of "new rationalism", "new image" of science, the problem of communicating philosophy (metaphysics) and science. Methodological ideas are central in the philosophy of structuralism, phenomenology and hermeneutics. Some generalized specific scientific concepts (pages of interpretations of the systemic approach, structuralism) inherent in the unjustified tendency to universalization, the desire to obtain the status of philosophical concepts. The origins of such universalization are the groundless identification of the philosophical and specific scientific levels of the methodology.
There are several classifications of methodological knowledge. One of the common is the division of the methodology on content and formal. The first includes the following problems: the structure of scientific knowledge and scientific theory; laws of generation, functioning and changing scientific theories; The conceptual framework of science, conditions and criteria of scientific and the like. The formal aspects of the methodology are associated with the analysis of the language of science, the formal structure of the scientific explanation on the description of the methods and others.
In general, the methodology as an independent branch of knowledge covers all the diversity of methodological and methodological principles and techniques, operations and forms of construction of scientific knowledge. TO general scientific research principles The methodology and logic of science arising from the philosophical foundations should include:
♦ Systems (Disclosure of the integrity of the object as a system and the creation of a single holistic picture)
♦ Unity of Theory and Practice (explanatory principle of scientific knowledge and task of science in practice);
♦ Determinism (recognition of objectivity of the natural relationship and interdependence of phenomena);
♦ Unity of theoretical and empirical (The integrity of the study structure, practical verification of cognitive problems).
Scientific knowledge and the process itself is characterized by systemativity and structure. First of all, in the structure of scientific knowledge allocated empirical and theoretical levels, And the aggregate of those research procedures that lead to the achievement of knowledge at these two levels, accordingly, is divided into the empirical and theoretical stages of scientific research.
These stages and levels in a scientific study differ according to certain principles. First, they differ in the gnoseological orientation (on the empirical level - the study of phenomena and surface ties between them, without deepening into significant relations, and theoretically - to disclose the causes and significant ties between phenomena). The main cognitive task of the empirical stage is to describe phenomena, and the theoretical - their explanation.
Empirical and theoretical levels differ in the nature of scientific results. The main form of knowledge obtained on the empirical level, the fact and the totality of empirical generalizations. Theoretically, knowledge is fixed in the form of laws, principles and theories.
Accordingly differ I. methods Used in obtaining these types of knowledge. At the empirical stage of knowledge, observation, experiment, induction, and theoretically, analysis and synthesis, idealization, induction and deduction, analogy, hypothesis, and the like are used.
The difference between the empirical and theoretical stages of knowledge is also manifested in various sensual and rational ratio moments in methods, forms of knowledge used at each stage. Of course, the clear boundary between empirical and theoretical knowledge does not exist. Thus, an empirical study, although focused on knowledge and fixation of phenomena, is constantly breaking into the level of essence, and the theoretical study is looking for confirmation of the correctness of its results in empiric. The experiment is always theoretically loaded, and any abstract theory has an empirical interpretation.
In the methodology of the science of introducing categories "empirical" and "theoretical" is of great importance for clarifying the structure of scientific knowledge. But the internal logic of methodological studies requires the introduction of a new methodological unit, has the character of the metatoretical.
Not a denying difference between theoretical and empirical activities in science, the American historian of physics T. Kun uses the basic methodological concept of "paradigm". Paradigmal knowledge Does not directly perform an explanatory function, but is a condition for a certain type of theoretical activity. The concept of "paradigm" in the philosophy of science was introduced by the positivist G. Bergman for the characterization of the normativeness of the methodology, and T. Kun to build the theory of scientific revolutions proposed a system of concepts, among which an important place belongs to the concept of "paradigm", which "recognized by all scientific achievements that in The course of a certain time give a model of problem formulation and their decision to scientific society. " Paradigm, Thus, it was interpreted both as the theory, recognized by scientific society, and as the rules, and standards of scientific practice, and as a standard system of methods.
The paradigm is used in the theory and history of science to characterize the formation of scientific discipline, describing various stages of scientific knowledge (doparadigmal, that is, the period when there is no theory, recognized by scientific society, and paradigm), for analyzing scientific revolutions. This concept is also applied in the methodological analysis of various scientific disciplines (psychology, sociology, chemistry, linguistics, etc.).
The same meaning has the concept "Research program", It was introduced into the science methodology of the English historian Science I. Lakatos. Under the research program, the leader of the historical school in the methodology and philosophy of science understands a certain type of metatoretical education, contains a set of source ideas and methodological plants, which cause the construction, development and justification of a certain theory.
In recent years, in the domestic literature there was a whole complex of methodological concepts of the metatoretical load: "Interteoria", "style of thinking", "picture of the world", "own and philosophical foundations of science", "Theoretical basis", "Conditions of knowledge" and others. This indicates the need for a new methodological unit, together with the concepts of empirical and theoretical, would make it possible to draw up a correct idea of \u200b\u200bthe structure of research activities in scientific knowledge.
Methodology of scientific research
The concept of the method and methodology
Scientific activities, like any other, are carried out using certain funds, as well as special techniques and methods, i.e. Methods, OT proper use Which largely depends success in the implementation of the task of the study.
Method - This is a combination of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical development of reality. The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of knowledge or practical transformation of one or another object.
At the level of everyday practical activity, the method is formed by spontaneously and only later is aware of people. In the science of science, the method is consciously formed and purposefully.The scientific method only then complies with its status when it provides an adequate display of properties and patterns of objects of the external world.
Scientific method - This is a system of rules and techniques, with the help of which the objective knowledge of reality is achieved.
The scientific method is characteristic of the following signs:
1) clarity or accessibility;
2) the absence of spontaneity in application;
4) fruitfulness or ability to achieve not only scheduled, but no less significant side results;
5) reliability or ability with a high degree of reliability to ensure the desired result;
6) economy or ability to give results with the lowest costs of assets and time.
The nature of the method is significantly determined:
Subject of research;
The degree of community assigned tasks;
Accumulated experience and other factors.
Methods suitable for one field of scientific studies are unsuitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, we are witnessing many outstanding achievements as consequences of transferring methods that have proven themselves in some sciences into other sciences to solve their specific tasks. Thus, opposite tendencies of differentiation and integration of sciences based on the methods used are observed.
Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which thus protrudes its prerequisite. The effectiveness and strength of one or another method is due to the meaning and depth of the theory, on the basis of which it is formed. In turn, the method is used to deepen and expand theoretical knowledge as a system. Thus, the theory and method are closely interrelated: theory, reflecting reality, is transformed into the method by developing rules arising from it, techniques, operations contribute to the formation, development, clarification of theory, its practical verification.
The scientific method contains a number of aspects:
1) objective and meaningful (expresses the condition of the method of knowledge through the theory);
2) the operational (fixes the dependence of the content of the method is not as much from the object, but from the subject of knowledge, its competence and the ability to translate the appropriate theory into the system of rules, receptions, which in the aggregate make up the method);
3) Prakseskiological (properties of reliability, efficiency, clarity).
The main functions of the method:
Integrative;
Gnoseological;
Systematizing.
In the structure of the method, the central place occupies the rules.Rule - This is an order that establishes the procedure when achieving some goal. The rule is such a position in which the pattern is reflected in some subject area. This pattern is formedbasic knowledge regulations. In addition, the rule includes some system of operational standards providing a combination of funds and conditions with human activity. In addition, the structure of the method includes somereceivers implemented on the basis of operational norms.
The concept of methodology.
In the most general sense, under the methodology, the system of methods used in some field of activity is understood. But in the context of the philosophical research, the methodology is, first of all, the doctrine of scientific activity methods, the overall theory of the scientific method. Its tasks are to study the possibilities and prospects for the development of relevant methods during scientific knowledge. The methodology of science tends to streamline, systematize the methods, set the suitability of their use in various fields.
Methodology of science represents the theory of scientific knowledge exploring cognitive processesoriginating in science, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. In this sense, it acts as a metapory knowledge of a philosophical nature.
Methodology As the general method of the method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and developing those methods that arose in philosophy and science. Historically, the problems of the science methodology were developed in the framework of philosophy (the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, the inductive method of the backone, the dialectical method of Hegel, the phenomenological method of Husserl, etc.). Therefore, the methodology of science is very closely connected with philosophy, especially with such discipline as the theory of knowledge.
In addition, the methodology of science is closely related to such a discipline as the logic of science that has developed from the second half of the 19th century.Logic science - Discipline, applying the concepts and technical apparatus of modern logic to analyzing scientific knowledge systems.
The main problems of the logic of science:
1) study of the logical structures of scientific theories;
2) studying the construction of artificial languages \u200b\u200bof science;
3) study of various types of deductive and inductive conclusions used in natural, social and technical sciences;
4) analysis of formal structures of fundamental and derivative scientific concepts and definitions;
5) consideration and improvement of the logical structure of research procedures and operations and the development of logical criteria for their heuristic efficiency.
Starting from 17-18 centuries. Methodological ideas are evolved within the framework of private sciences. Each science has its own methodological arsenal.
In the system of methodological knowledge, the main groups can be distinguished, taking into account the degree of community and the latitude of the use of individual methods that are included in them. These include:
1) philosophical methods (set the most general regulators of the study - dialectical, metaphysical, phenomenological, hermeneutic, etc.);
2) general scientific methods (characteristic of a number of sectors of scientific knowledge; they are few dependent on the specifics of the object of research and type of problems, but at the same time depend on the level and depth of the study);
3) private scientific methods (used within selected special scientific disciplines; a distinctive feature These methods are their dependence on the nature of the study object and the specifics of solved tasks).
In this regard, within the framework of the methodology of science, the philosophical and methodological analysis of science, general scientific and private methodology is distinguished.
Specificity of philosophical and methodological analysis of science
Essentially, each philosophical system has a methodological function. Examples: dialectical, metaphysical, phenomenological, analytical, hermeneutic, etc.
The specifics of philosophical methods are that it is not a set of rigidly fixed regulators, but a system of rules, operations, techniques wearing universal and universal. Philosophical methods are not described in strict terms of logic and experiment, the formalization and mathematization are not possible. They only ask the most general regulators of the study, its general strategy, but do not replace special methods and do not determine the final result of knowledge directly and directly. Figuratively speaking, philosophy is a compass that helps determine the right path, but not a card on which the path is in advance to the ultimate goal.
Philosophical methods play a big role in scientific knowledge, asking a predetermined look at the essence of the object. Here all other methodological installations originate here, the turning point in the development of one or another fundamental discipline is comprehended.
The combination of philosophical regulators acts as an effective means if it is mediated by other, more specific methods. It is ridiculous that, as if knowing only the principles of dialectics, you can create new types of machines. The philosophical method is not a "universal latter", it is impossible to directly get answers to certain problems of private sciences by simple logical development of common truths. It cannot be a "opening algorithm", but gives a scientist only the most general orientation of the study. As an example, the use of a dialectical method in science - scientists are interested in themselves by themselves the categories "Development" "causality", etc., and the regulatory principles formulated on them and how they can help in a real scientific study.
The impact of philosophical methods on the process of scientific cognition is always carried out not directly and directly, but a complex indirect path. Philosophical regulators are broadcast to scientific research through general scientific and concluding regulatory. Philosophical methods do not always make themselves felt in the process of study explicitly. They can be taken into account and applied either spontaneously or consciously. But in any science there are elements of universal meaning (laws, principles, concepts, categories), where philosophy is manifested.
General scientific and private scientific methodology.
General scientific methodology It is a totality of knowledge about the principles and methods used in any scientific discipline. It advocates a kind of "intermediate methodology" between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of special sciences. The general scientific belongs to such concepts as "system", "structure", "element", "function", etc. On the basis of general scientific concepts and categories, appropriate methods of cognition are formulated, which ensure optimal interaction of philosophy with specific scientific knowledge and its methods.
The general scientific methods are divided into:
1) Overtress, used in any act of knowledge and at any level. This is an analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, a generalization, analogy, abstraction;
2) methods of empirical research used on the empirical level of the study (observation, experiment, description, measurement, comparison);
3) methods of theoretical study applied on theoretical level of research (idealization, formalization, axiomatic, hypothetical and deductive, etc.);
4) methods of systematization of scientific knowledge (typology, classification).
Characteristic features of general scientific concepts and methods:
Connection in their content of elements of philosophical categories and the concepts of a number of private sciences;
The possibility of formalization and clarification by mathematical means.
At the level of the general scientific methodology, a general scientific picture of the world is formed.
Private scientific methodologyrepresents a combination of knowledge about the principles and methods used in a particular special scientific discipline. In its framework, special scientific paintings of the world are formed. Each science has its own specific set of methodological means. At the same time, the methods of some sciences can be broadcast to other sciences. Interdisciplinary scientific methods arise.
Technique of scientific research.
The main attention under the methodology of science is aimed at scientific research as a type of activity in which the use of various scientific methods is embodied.Scientific research - Activities aimed at obtaining true knowledge of objective reality.
Knowledge applied at the sensory level of some scientific research make up its basemethods . In an empirical study, the technique ensures the collection and primary processing of experienced data, regulates the practice of research work - experimental production activities. Theoretical work also requires its technique. Here, its prescriptions relate to activities with objects expressed in a sign form. For example, there are methods of various kinds of calculations, decoding texts, conducting mental experiments, etc.On the modern stage development of science as on its empirical, soand on theoretical level, an extremely important role belongs to computer technicians. Without it, modern experiment, modeling situations, various computational procedures are unthinkable.
Any technique is created on the basis of higher levels of knowledge, but is a combination of highly specialized installations, which includes sufficiently rigid restrictions - instructions, projects, standards, technical conditions, etc. At the level of the installation methodology, existing perfectly, in human thoughts, as if closer with practical operations, completing the formation of the method. Without them, the method is something speculative and does not get the exit to the outside world. In turn, the practice practice is impossible without managing the ideal settings. Good possession of the methodology is the indicator of the high professionalism of the scientist.
Structure of scientific research
Scientific research contains a number of elements in its structure.
Object of study - a fragment of reality, which is sent to the cognitive activity of the subject, and which exists outside and regardless of the consciousness of the learning subject. Objects of research can be both material and intangible in nature. Their independence from consciousness is that they exist, regardless of whether people know or unknown about them.
Subject of research is part of the object directly involved in the study; These are the main, most essential signs of an object in terms of a particular study. The specifics of the subject of the scientific research is that at first it is set in general, indefinite features, is anticipate and projected to a small extent. Finally, he "is evaluated" at the end of the study. Starting to him, the scientist can not submit it todrawings and calculations. What you need to "snatch" from the object and synthesize in the research product - this researcher has a superficial, unilateral, not exhaustive knowledge. Therefore, the form of fixing the subject of the study is the question of the problem.
Gradually transforming the research product, the subject is enriched and developing at the expense of unknown signs and conditions of its existence. Externally, this is expressed in the change of issues, additionally stand up in front of the researcher, consistently allowed by him and subordinate to the general purpose of the study.
It can be said that individual scientific disciplines are engaged in the study of individual "sections" of the objects under study. The variety of possible "cuts" of objects of objects generates multi-consistentness of scientific knowledge. Each of the items creates its conceptual apparatus, its specific research methods, its own language.
Purpose of the study - Ideal, mental anticipation of the result, for which scientific and educational actions are being taken.
The features of the research subject directly affect its goals. Last concluding inthe image of the research subject is characterized by the imperative uncertainty in the beginning of the research process. It is specified as the end result approaches.
Objectives of research Formulate questions to which the answer must be received to implement the objectives of the study.
The objectives and objectives of the study form interrelated chains in which each link serves as a means of holding other links. The ultimate goal of the study may be called its common task, and private tasks acting as a means of solving the main one can be called intermediate objectives, or the objectives of the second order.
The main and additional tasks of the study are also distinguished: the main tasks meet its target installation, additional - are set to prepare future studies, checking by the on-site (possibly, very relevant), not related to this problem of hypotheses, to solve some methodological issues, etc. .
Ways to achieve the goal:
If the main goal is formulated as theoretical, then when developing a program, the main attention is paid to the study of scientific literature on this issue, a clear interpretation of the initial concepts, the construction of the hypothetical general concept of the research subject, the allocation of the scientific problem and the logical analysis of the working hypotheses.
Other logic manages the actions of the researcher, if it sets itself directly practical purpose. It begins work, based on the specifics of this object and clarify the practical tasks to be solved. Only after that, he addresses literature in search of a response to the question: there is a "typical" solution of the problems that have arisen, that is, a special theory relating to the subject? If there is no "typical" solution, further work is deployed according to the theoretical research scheme. If such a solution is available, applied hypotheses are built as various options for reading typical solutions in relation to specific conditions.
It is very important to keep in mind that any research oriented theoretical tasks can be continued as applied. At the first stage, we get some typical solution of the problem, and then translate it into specific conditions.
Also element of the structure of scientific research areresearch and cognitive activities. These include:
Material resources;
Theoretical objects (ideal constructs);
Research methods and other ideal regulators of research: norms, samples, ideals of scientific activities.
Scientific search facilities are in constant change and development. The fact that some of them are successfully used at one stage of development of science is not a sufficient guarantor of their coordination with new areas of reality and therefore require improvements or replacement.
System approach as a general scientific methodological program and its essence.
Work with complex research tasks involves the use of not only various methods, but also various scientific research strategies. The most important of them, playing the role of a general scientific methodological program of scientific knowledge, is a systematic approach.Systems approach It is a combination of general scientific methodological principles, which are based on the consideration of objects as systems.System - A combination of elements in relations and connections with each other, forming something whole.
The philosophical aspects of the systemic approach are expressed in the principle of systematicity, the content of which is disclosed in the concepts of integrity, structurality, interdependence of the system and medium, hierarchy, multiplicity of the description of each system.
The concept of integrity Displays the principal incorrectness of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of the components of its elements and non-externality from the properties of the parts of the properties of the whole and, at the same time, the dependence of each element, properties and system ratio from its place and functions inside the whole.
In the concept of structural, the fact that the behavior of the system is due not to so much by the behavior of its individual elements, how many properties of its structure and that there is the possibility of describing the system through the establishment of its structure.
The interdependence of the system and the medium means that the system forms and exhibits its properties in constant interaction with the medium, while remaining the leading active component of interaction.
The concept of hierarchy is focuses on the fact that each element of the system can be considered as a system, and the system under study in this case is one of the elements of a wider system.
The possibility of multiple system descriptions exists due to the principal complexity of each system, as a result of which its adequate knowledge requires the construction of many different models, each of which describes only a certain aspect of the system.
The specificity of the system approach is determined by the fact that it focuses on the study of the integrity of the developing object and ensuring its mechanisms to identify the diverse types of bonds of a complex object and minimize them into a single theoretical system. The widespread use of a systematic approach in modern research practice is due to a number of circumstances and, above all, intensive development in the modern scientific knowledge of complex objects, the composition, configuration and principles of the functioning of which are far from obvious and require special analysis.
One of the most vivid incarnations of the system methodology issystem analysis, Introducing a special branch of applied knowledge applicable to systems of any nature.
Recently, the nonlinear methodology of knowledge associated with the development of interdisciplinary scientific concepts is becoming the development of interdisciplinary scientific concepts - the dynamics of non-equilibrium states and synergetics. Within the framework of these concepts, new guidelines for cognitive activity are developing, asking for the consideration of the object under study as a complex self-organizing and thus historically self-developing system.
With a systematic approach as a general scientific methodological program is also closely connectedstructural and functional approachHe speaks by a variety. It is based on the allocation in the holistic systems of their structure - a set of sustainable relationships and relationships between its elements and their role (functions) relative to each other.
The structure is understood as something unchanged with certain transformations, and the function as the purpose of each of the elements of this system.
Basic requirements of a structural and functional approach:
Study structure, structure of the object being studied;
Study of its elements and their functional characteristics;
Considering the history of the functioning and development of the object as a whole.
The guidelines of cognitive activity, concentrated in the content of general scientific methods, are deployed, systemically organized complexes that differ in complex structure. In addition, the methods themselves are in complex connection together. In real practice of scientific research, knowledge methods are applied together by asking the strategy for solving the tasks. At the same time, the specificity of any of the methods allows to carry out a meaningful consideration of each of them individually, taking into account the belonging to a certain level of scientific research.
Overhead methods of scientific research.
Analysis - Dismemberment of a holistic subject to components (features, properties, relationships) for the purpose of their comprehensive study.
Synthesis - The connection of previously selected parts (parties, signs, properties, relationships) of the object in a single whole.
Abstraction - mental distraction from a number of features, properties and relationships of the object being studied while simultaneously allocations to consider those that are interested in the researcher. As a result, "abstract objects" appear, which are both separately taken concepts and categories and their systems.
Generalization - Establishment common properties and signs of objects. General - philosophical category, reflecting similar, repetitive signs, features that belong to single phenomena or all objects of this class. There are two types of general:
Abstract (simple the same, the external similarity, the similarity of a number of single objects);
Specifically general (internal, deep, repeated in a group of similar phenomena base - essence).
In accordance with this, two types of generalizations are distinguished:
Allocation of any signs and properties of objects;
Allocation of essential features and properties of objects.
Otherwise, the basis of the generalization is divided into:
Inductive (from individual facts and events to their expression in thoughts);
Logic (from one thought to another, more general).
The method opposite to generalization -limitation (Transition from more general concept to less common).
Induction - The research method in which the general conclusion is based on private parcels.
Deduction - The study method by which the proposal of a private one follows from the general parcels.
Analogy - The method of knowledge, in which, on the basis of the similarity of objects in some signs, enclose their similarity and in other signs.
Modeling - Studying an object by creating and researching its copies (models) that replaces the original from certain parties that are interested in knowledge.
Methods of empirical research
At the empirical level, techniques are used asobservation, description, comparison, measurement, experiment.
Observation - It is a systematic and targeted perception of phenomena during which we obtain knowledge of the external parties, properties and relationships of the objects under study. The observation is always not contemplative, but active, active in nature. It is subordinated to solving a specific scientific task and therefore differs in focus, selectivity and systematic.
Basic Requirements for Scientific Observation: Uniqueness of the plan, the presence of strictly defined means (in the technical sciences - devices), the objectivity of the results. Objectivity is ensured by the possibility of controlling by either re-observation, or the use of other research methods, in particular, the experiment. Usually, observation is included as part of the experiment. An important point of observation is the interpretation of its results - deciphering instrument readings, etc.
Scientific observation is always mediated by theoretical knowledge, since the latter defines the object and the subject of observation, the purpose of observation and the method of its implementation. During the observation, the researcher is always guided by a certain idea, concept or hypothesis. It does not simply register any facts, but consciously selects those of them that either confirm or refute his ideas. It is very important to select the most represented group of facts in their relationship. Interpretation of the observation is also always carried out with the help of certain theoretical provisions.
The implementation of developed forms of observation involves the use of special means - and, in the first place, devices, the development and implementation of which also requires the involvement of theoretical representations of science. In the public science, the surveillance form is a survey; To form a survey (survey, interviewing) also requires special theoretical knowledge.
Description - fixation by means of a natural or artificial language of the experimental results (surveillance data or experiment) using certain designation systems adopted in science (schemes, graphs, drawings, tables, charts, etc.).
During the description, the measurement of phenomena is compared.
Comparison - a method that detects the similarity or distinction of objects (or stages of the development of the same object), i.e. Their identity and differences. But this method makes sense only in the aggregate of homogeneous subjects forming a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out on features essential for this review. At the same time, the signs compared by one feature may be incomparable.
Measure - The research method at which the ratio of one value is set to another, which serves as standard, standard. The most widespread use of the measurement is found in natural and technical sciences, but from the 20s - 30s of the XX century. It is used in consumption in social studies. Measurement suggests: an object that some operation is carried out; Properties of this object, which can be perceived, and the value of which is established using this operation; The tool by which this operation is performed. The common goal of any measurements is to obtain numerical data, allowing to judge not so much about quality as the number of certain states. At the same time, the value of the resulting value should be so close to true that it can be used instead of the true one for this purpose. The errors of measurement results (systematic and random) are possible.
Distinguish direct and indirect measurement procedures. The latter includes measurements of objects that are removed from us or are not directly perceived. The value of the measured value is established at the same time indirectly. Indirect measurements are carried out when a general relationship is known between values, which allows you to derive the desired result from already known values.
Experiment - The study method, with which the active and targeted perception of a specific object in controlled and managed conditions occurs.
The main features of the experiment:
1) an active attitude to the object up to its change and transformation;
2) multiple reproducibility of the object being studied at the request of the researcher;
3) the ability to detect such properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;
4) the ability to consider the phenomenon "in pure form" by isolating it from external influences, or by changing the experimental conditions;
5) the ability to control the "behavior" of the object and verification of the results.
We can say that the experiment is an idealized experience. It makes it possible to monitor the course of changing the phenomenon, actively influence it, recreate if there is a need for it before comparing the results obtained. Therefore, the experiment is the method of stronger and effective than observation or measurement, where the studied phenomenon remains unchanged. This is the highest form of empirical research.
The experiment is applied either to create a situation that allows you to investigate an object in pure form, or to test already existing hypotheses and theories, or to formulate new hypotheses and theoretical representations. Any experiment is always guided by any theoretical ideas, concept, hypothesis. The experimental data, as well as observations, are always theoretically loaded - from its setting to the interpretation of the results.
Stages of the experiment:
1) planning and construction (its goal, type, tools, etc.);
2) control;
3) interpretation of results.
EXPERIMENT STRUCTURE:
1) the object of the study;
2) the creation of the necessary conditions (material factors of impact on the object of study, elimination of unwanted impacts - interference);
3) the technique of experiment;
4) hypothesis or the theory you need to check.
As a rule, experimentation is associated with the use of simpler practical methods - observations, comparisons and measurements. Since the experiment is not carried out, as a rule, without observations and measurements, it must meet their guidelines. In particular, as in observations and measurements, the experiment can be considered evident if it is reproduced by any other person else in the other place of space and at another time and gives the same result.
Types of Experiment:
Depending on the tasks of the experiment, research (task - the formation of new scientific theories), test experiments (checking existing hypotheses and theories), decisive (confirmation of one and refutation of another of rival theories).
Depending on the nature of the objects, physical, chemical, biological, social, etc. experiments are distinguished.
High-quality experiments are also distinguished, which are intended to establish the presence or absence of an intended phenomenon, and measuring experiments that detect the quantitative certainty of a certain property.
Methods of theoretical research.
Theoretical stage usesmental experiment, idealization, formalization,axiomatic, hypothetical-deductive methods, the method of climbing from abstract to a specific, as well as methods of historical and logical analysis.
Idealization - The study method, consisting in the mental design of the presentation of the object by eliminating the conditions necessary for its real existence. In fact, idealization is a kind of abstraction procedure specified, taking into account the needs of theoretical research. The results of such construct are idealized objects.
The formation of idealizations can go different ways:
Consistently implemented multi-stage abstraction (so, objects of mathematics are obtained - plane, direct, point, etc.);
The decay and fixation of some properties of the object being studied in the separation from all others (ideal objects of natural sciences).
Idealized objects are much simpler to real objects, which allows us to apply mathematical methods for describing. Thanks to the idealization, the processes are considered in their purest form, without accidental bringing from outside, which opens ways to identify the laws on which these processes flow. The idealized subject, in contrast to the real, is not characterized by an infinite, but quite a certain number of properties and therefore the researcher gets the possibility of complete intellectual control over it. Idealized objects simulate the most significant relationship in real objects.
Since the provisions of the theory speak about the properties of ideal, not real objects, there is a problem of verification and adoption of these provisions based on correlation with the real world. Therefore, to account for the entected circumstances affecting the deviation of indicators, characteristic of empirical data, on the characteristics of the ideal subject, formulate the rules of concretization: the verification of the law, taking into account the specific conditions for its action.
Modeling (Method closely related to idealization) is a method of studying theoretical models, i.e. Analogues (schemes, structures, iconic systems) of certain fragments of reality, which are called originals. The researcher, transforming these analogues and managing them, expands and deepens the knowledge of the originals. Modeling is a method of mediated operating object, during which the object that interests us itself is studied directly, but some intermediate system (natural or artificial), which:
Located in some objective accordance with the known object (the model is, first of all, something that is compared - it is necessary that between the model and the original it is similar to some physical characteristics, or in the structure, or in functions);
Capable in the course of knowledge at the well-known stages to replace the object under study (in the process of study, the temporary substitution of the original model and work with it allows in many cases not only to detect, but also to predict its new properties);
In the process of its study, ultimately information about the object you are interested in.
The logical basis of the modeling method is the conclusions by analogy.
Exist different kinds Simulation. Main:
Subject (direct) - modeling, during which the study is conducted on the model reproducing certain physical, geometric, etc. The characteristics of the original. Subject modeling is used as a practical method of knowledge.
Signal modeling (models serve schemes, drawings, formulas, proposals of natural or artificial language, etc.). Since the actions with signs are simultaneously actions with some thoughts, so far, any sign modeling is inherently modeling mental.
In historical studies, reflective-measuring models are distinguished ("as it was") and imitational prognostic ("as it could be").
Mind experiment - The study method based on a combination of images, the material implementation of which is impossible. This method is formed on the basis of idealization and modeling. At the same time, it turns out to be an imaginary object that is converted in accordance with the rules suitable for this situation. Inaccessible to the practical state experiment is disclosed with its continuation - a mental experiment.
As an illustration, you can take a model built by K. Marx and allowed him to thoroughly explore the capitalist method of production of the middle of the nineteenth century. Building this model was associated with a number of idealizing assumptions. In particular, it was assumed that in the economy there is no monopoly; All sorts of establishments are canceled that prevent the movement of labor from one place or from one field of production to another; labor in all spheres of production is reduced to simple work; the rate of surplus value is the same in all spheres of production; The average organic structure of capital in all sectors of production is equally; The demand for each product is equal to his proposal; the duration of the working day and the cash price of the workforce is constant; Agriculture produces production in the same way as any other branch of production; There is no shopping and bank capital; Export and import balanced; There are only two classes - capitalists and hired workers; The capitalist is constantly striving for maximum profits, acting is always rational. The result was a model of some "ideal" capitalism. Mind experimentation with it made it possible to formulate the laws of capitalist society, in particular, the most important of them - the law of value, according to which the production and exchange of goods are carried out on the basis of the costs of socially necessary labor.
A mental experiment allows you to introduce new concepts in the context of scientific theory, formulate the fundamental principles of the scientific concept.
Recently, in order to implement modeling and conducting a mental experiment, it is increasingly usedcomputational experiment. The main advantage of the computer is that with its help, in the study, very complex systems, it is possible to deeply analyze not only in cash, but also possible, including future states. The essence of the computational experiment is that an experiment is carried out over some mathematical model of the object using a computer. According to one parameters of the model, its other characteristics are calculated and the conclusions are made on the properties of the phenomena represented by the mathematical model. The main stages of the computational experiment:
1) the construction of a mathematical model of the object being studied in certain conditions (as a rule, it is represented by a high-order system of equations);
2) determination of the computational algorithm for solving the basic system of equations;
3) Building a program for implementing the task for computers.
Computing experiment based on the accumulated experience of mathematical modeling, a bank of computing algorithms and software allows you to quickly and effectively solve problems in almost any field of mathematized scientific knowledge. Appealing to the computational experiment in some cases allows dramatically to reduce the cost of scientific developments and intensify the process of scientific research, which is provided by the multivariate of the calculations performed and simplicity of modifications to simulate certain experimental conditions.
Formalization - The study method, which is based on the display of meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). The latter is created to accurately express thoughts in order to eliminate the possibility for ambiguous understanding. When formalizing the arguments about objects is transferred to the operating plane with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages. The use of special symbols allows you to eliminate the multivalousness and inaccuracy, the image form of a natural language. In formalized arguments, each symbol is strictly unequivocal. Formalization serves as the basis for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thereby computerization of knowledge.
The main thing in the formalization process is that the formulas of artificial languages \u200b\u200bcan produce operations, to obtain new formulas and ratios of them. Thus, the operations with thoughts are replaced by actions with signs and symbols (limits of the method).
The formalization method opens up opportunities for the use of more complex methods of theoretical research, for examplemethod of mathematical hypothesiswhere some equations representing the modification of previously known and proven states act as hypotheses. Changing the latter make up a new equation expressing a hypothesis that refers to new phenomena.Often, the initial mathematical formula is borrowed from the adjacent and not even adjacent area of \u200b\u200bknowledge, the values, other nature are substituted into it, and then check, coincide the calculated and real behavior of the object. Of course, the applicability of this method is limited by those disciplines that have already accumulated a fairly rich mathematical arsenal.
Axiomatic method - The method of building a scientific theory, in which some provisions that do not require special evidence (axioms or postulates) are taken beyond its foundation (axioms or postulates), of which all other provisions are derived using formal logical evidence. The combination of axioms and the provisions derived on their basis forms an axiomatically constructed theory, which includes abstract iconic models. Such a theory can be used for model representation of not one, but several classes of phenomena, for characteristics not one, but several subject areas. For the output of the provisions from the axis, special rules of output are formulated - the provisions of mathematical logic. Signing the correlation rules by an axiom of a formally constructed knowledge system with a specific subject area is called interpretation. In modern natural science, examples of formal axiomatic theories are fundamental physical theories, which entails a number of specific problems of their interpretation and rationale (especially for theoretical constructions of non-classical and post-symbolic science).
By virtue of the specifics of axiomatically constructed systems of theoretical knowledge for their substantiation, intra-physical truth criteria are of particular importance: the requirement of consistency and completeness of the theory and requirement of sufficient grounds for evidence or denial of any provision formulated under such a theory.
This method is widely used in mathematics, as well as in those natural sciences where the formalization method is applied. (Limited method).
Hypothetical deductive method - The method of constructing a scientific theory, which is based on the creation of a system of interrelated hypotheses, of which, then by deductive deployment, a system of private hypotheses is derived, subject to experienced verification. Thus, this method is based on deduction (derived) of conclusions from hypotheses and other parcels, the true meaning of which is unknown. This means that the conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably have a probabilistic nature.
The structure of the hypothetical and deductive method:
1) hypothesis extension about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using a variety of logical techniques;
2) an assessment of the foundation of the hypotheses and the choice of their set of most likely;
3) the removal of the hypothesis is deductive by consequences with the refinement of its content;
4) Experimental verification of derived from the hypothesis of the consequences. Here is a hypothesis or receives experimental confirmation or refuted. However, confirmation of certain consequences does not guarantee its truth or falsity as a whole. The best inspection of the hypothesis goes into the theory.
The method of climbing from the abstract to a specific - The method that is initially the original abstraction (the main connection (ratio) of the object being studied), and then, step by step, through the consecutive stages of deepening and expanding knowledge, can be seen as it is modified in various conditions, new connections are opening up, The interaction between their interaction is established and, thus, the essence of the object being studied is displayed in its entirety.
Method of historical and logical analysis. The historical method requires describing the actual history of the object in all the diversity of its existence. The logical method is a mental reconstruction of the history of the object, purified from a random, insignificant and focused on identifying the essence. Unity of logical and historical analysis.
Logical procedures for substantiation of scientific knowledge
All specific methods, both empirical and theoretical, are accompanied by logical procedures. The effectiveness of empirical and theoretical methods is directly depending on how correctly in terms of logic is being built by appropriate scientific arguments.
Justification - A logical procedure associated with the assessment of a certain product of knowledge as a component of a scientific knowledge system in terms of its compliance with functions, goals and objectives of this system.
Main types of justification:
Evidence - A logical procedure in which the expression with an unknown while the meaning is derived from statements, the truth of which is already installed. This makes it possible to eliminate all doubts and recognize the truth of this expression.
Proof structure:
Thesis (expression, the truth that is established);
Arguments, arguments (statements, with the help of which the truth of the thesis) is established;
Additional assumptions (an auxiliary expressions entered into the proof structure and eliminated during the transition to the final result);
Demonstration (logical form of this procedure).
A typical example of evidence is any mathematical reasoning, based on the results of which some new theorem is accepted. In it, this theorem acts as the thesis, previously proven theorems and axioms - as arguments, the demonstration is a form of deduction.
Types of evidence:
Direct (the thesis directly follows from the arguments);
Indirect (the thesis is proved indirectly):
Apagogic (proof of nasty - establishing the falsity of the antithesis: It is assumed that the antithesis is true, and the effect is derived from it if at least one of the resulting consequences enters into a conflict with cash true judgments, then the investigation is recognized as false, and after him, the antithesis itself is The truth of the thesis is recognized);
The dividing (the truth of the thesis is established by eliminating all alternatives opposing him).
With proof, such a logical procedure is closely connected as a refutation.
Refutation - A logical procedure that establishes the possession of the thesis of a logical statement.
Types of refutation:
Proof of the antithesis (independently proves the statement contrary to the refuted thesis);
The establishment of the false consequences arising from the thesis (the assumption of the truth of the refuted thesis is made and the effect is derived from it; if at least one consequence does not correspond to reality, i.e. is false, then the assumption will be false.
Thus, with the help of refutation, a negative result is achieved. But it also has a positive effect: the circle of finding a true position narrows.
the confirmation - Partial substantiation of the truth of some statement. It plays a special role in the presence of hypotheses and the absence of sufficient arguments for their adoption. If, in evidence, a complete substantiation of the truth of some statement is achieved, then when confirmed - partial.
The statement in confirms the hypothesis A, if only if the statement in is a true consequence of A. This criterion is faithful in cases where confirmed and confirming relate to the same level of knowledge. Therefore, it is reliable in mathematics or when checking the elementary generalizations reduced to the results of observations. However, there are significant reservations if confirmed and confirming are at different cognitive levels - confirmation of theoretical provisions of empirical data. The latter are formed under the influence of various, including random, factors. Only their accounting and reduction to zero can bring confirmation.
If the hypothesis is confirmed by the facts, this does not mean that it should be immediately accepted. According to the rules of logic, the truth of the investigation in does not mean the truth of the foundation of A. Each new investigation makes the hypothesis more and more likely, but to become an element of the corresponding system of theoretical knowledge, it must be underway a long path of testing on the applicability in this system and the ability to perform it The character of the function.
Thus, when confirming the thesis:
The arguments are their consequences;
The demonstration does not carry the necessary (deductive) character.
Objection - a logical procedure opposite to confirmation. It is directed to the weakening of some thesis (hypothesis).
Types of objections:
Direct (direct consideration of the disadvantages of the thesis; as a rule, by bringing the true antithesis, the IL by using an antithesis, which is not sufficiently substantiated and has a certain degree of probability);
Indirect (directed not against the thesis itself, but against the arguments given to the rationale or the logical form of its connection with arguments (demonstration).
Explanation - a logical procedure that reveals essential characteristics, causal links or functional relationships of some object.
Types of explanation:
1) object (depends on the nature of the object):
Essential (aimed at disclosing the essential characteristics of some object). Scientific theories and laws are acting as arguments;
Causal (provisions on the reasons for those or phenomena are acting as arguments;
Functional (considered the role performed by some element in the system)
2) Subject (depends on the direction of the subject, historical context - the same fact can get a different explanation depending on the specific conditions and the direction of the subject). Used in non-classical and post-symbolic science - the requirement of a clear fixation of the features of observation means, etc. Not only the presentation, but also the selection of facts is traces of subjective activities.
Objectivism and subjectivism.
The difference of explanation from the proof: the proof establishes the truth of the thesis; With an explanation, some thesis has already been proven (depending on the orientation of the same syllogism, both evidence and explanation).
Interpretation - a logical procedure that attributes some meaningful meaning or value of symbols or formula formulas. As a result, the formal system turns into a language describing this or that object area. This subject area itself, as well as the values \u200b\u200battributed to formulas and signs, is also called interpretation. The formal theory is not justified until it has interpretation. It may also endowed with a new meaning and in a new one to interpret the previously developed meaningful theory.
A classic example of interpretation is to find a fragment of reality, the properties of which were described by the Lobachevsky geometry (the surface of negative curvature). Interpretation is used mainly in the most abstract sciences (logic, mathematics).
Methods of systematization of scientific knowledge
Classification - The method of separating the set of objects studied on subsets based on strictly recorded similarities and differences. Classification is a way to organize an empirical array of information. The purpose of the classification is to determine the place in the system of any object, and thereby establishing the presence of some links between objects. The subject owning the classification criterion is able to navigate the diversity of concepts or (s) objects. The classification always reflects the level of knowledge available at the moment, summarizes it. On the other hand, the classification allows you to detect spaces in the existing knowledge, serve as a basis for diagnostic and prognostic procedures. In the so-called descriptive science, it performed the result (purpose) of knowledge (systematics in biology, attempts on various bases to classify sciences, etc.), and further development was presented as its improvement or supply of a new classification.
There are natural and artificial classifications depending on the materiality of the trait that is placed on its basis. Natural classifications suggest a significant criterion for distinguishing; Artificial can be in principle built on the basis of any sign. Animation of artc. your classifications are various auxiliary classifications of the type of alphabetic pointers, etc. In addition, the theoretical (in particular genetic) and empirical classifications are distinguished (in the framework of the latter, the establishment of the classification criterion is largely problematic.
Typology - The separation method of some studied set of objects to those with certain properties ordered and systematized groups using an idealized model or type (perfect or constructive). The basis of typology is the concept of fuzzy sets, i.e. Sets that do not have clear boundaries when the transition from the identity of the elements of the set to non-delicacy of their set is gradually, not sharp, i.e. Elements of some subject area belong to it only with a certain degree of affiliation.
Typology is carried out according to the selected and conceptually reasonable criteria (criteria), or according to an empirically detected and theoretically interpreted base (grounds), which makes it possible to distinguish between theoretical and empirical typology. It is assumed that the differences between the type forming by units in the prosecutor of the researcher are random in nature (due to the factors that cannot be considered) and are insignificant compared to similar differences between objects relating to different types.
The result of typologization is informedly informed inside its typology. The latter can be considered in a number of sciences as a form of knowledge presentation, or as a preceding the constructing the theory of any subject area, or as finalizing if it is impossible (or unprepacents of the scientific community) to formulate an adequate area of \u200b\u200bstudy theory.
Communication and difference in classification and typology:
Classification involves finding a clear place to each element (object) in a group (class) or a number (sequence), with a clear boundarization between classes or rows (one separately taken item cannot simultaneously belong to different classes (rows), or not to enter into any either of them at all). In addition, it is believed that the classification criterion may be random, and the type of typological criterion is always essential. Typology allocates homogeneous sets, each of which has a modification of the same quality (substantial, "indigenous" feature, or rather the "idea" of this set). Naturally, in contrast to the sign of the "idea" classification, the typologicalization is far from visual, externally manifested and detectable. Classification is weaker than typology due to content
At the same time, some classifications, especially empirical, can be interpreted as preliminary (primary) typology, or as a transitional procedure for organizing elements (objects) on the way to typology.
Language of science. Specificity of scientific terminology
Both in empirical and in theoretical study, the language of science is played, which discovering a number of features compared to the language of ordinary knowledge. There are several reasons why the mobular language is not sufficient to describe the objects of scientific research:
His vocabulary does not allow you to record information about objects coming out for the sphere of direct practical activities of a person and its ordinary knowledge;
The concepts of an ordinary language are distinguished by vagueness and ambiguity;
The grammatical constructions of the ordinary language add up spontaneously, contain historical impositions, they are often cumbersome and do not allow to clearly express the structure of the thought, the logic of mental activity.
Due to the specified features, scientific knowledge involves the production and use of specialized, artificial languages. Their number is constantly increasing as science develops. The first example of the creation of special language means is the introduction of the Aristotle symbolic designations to logic.
The need for accurate and adequate language led in the course of development of science to the creation of special terminology. Along with this, the need to improve language funds in scientific knowledge led to the emergence of formalized languages \u200b\u200bof science.
Features of science language:
Clarity and definition of concepts;
The presence of clear rules determining the value of the initial terms;
Lack of cultural and historical surplus.
In the language of science distinguish the object language and metalayase.
Object (subject) language - The language, the expressions of which relate to some area of \u200b\u200bobjects, their properties and relationships. Eg, the language of mechanics describes the properties of the mechanical movement of material bodies and interactions between them; Arithmetic language indicates numbers, about their properties, operations over numbers; Chemistry language - About chemicals and reactions, etc. In general, any language is usually used, first of all, in order to talk about some unsatual objects, and in this sense, each language is object.
Metalanguage - This is the language used to express judgments about another language, object language. With the help of M. study the structure of the expressions of the object language, its expressive properties, on the attitude of it to other languages, etc. Example: in the textbook of English language For Russian Russian, the Russian language is a methanewoman, and English is the language-object.Along with this, the need to improve language funds in scientific knowledge led to the emergence of formalized languages \u200b\u200bof science.
Of course, in the natural language, the object language and metalayase are connected: we are talking in this language as subjects and about the language expressions themselves. This language is called semantically closed. Language intuition usually helps us avoid paradoxes to which the semantic closure of the natural language leads. But when building formalized languages, it is carefully monitored to ensure that the object language is clearly separated from the metala.
Scientific terminology - a set of words with accurate, the only meaning within the framework of this scientific discipline.
The basis of scientific terminology is scientificdefinitions.
Allocate the two meanings of the term "definition":
1) definition - an operation that allows you to allocate some subject among other items, unambiguously distinguish it from them; This is achieved by indicating the sign inherent in this, and only this, the subject (distinctive basis) (for example, to highlight a square from the class of rectangles, is indicated for such a sign that is inherent in squares and not inherent in other rectangles as equality of the parties);
2) definition - a logical operation, which gives you the opportunity to reveal, clarify or form the meaning of some language expressions using other language expressions (for example, a decrease is an area of \u200b\u200b1.09 hectares - since a person understands the meaning of the expression "1.09 hectare", for It becomes clear the meaning of the word "tithing".
The definition that gives the distinctive characteristic of a certain object is called real. The definition revealing, clarifying or forming the meaning of some linguistic expressions with the help of others, is called nominal. These two concepts do not exclude each other. The definition of an expression can be simultaneously determining the corresponding subject.
Nominal:
Explicit (classical and genetic or inductive);
Contextual.
In science, the definition play a significant role. Giving a definition, we obtain opportunities for solving a number of cognitive tasks related, firstly, with naming and recognition procedures. These tasks include:
Establishing the meaning of unfamiliar language expression using expressions of familiar and already meaningful (registering definitions);
Clarification of terms and, at the same time, the development of the unambiguous characteristics of the subject under consideration (clarifying definitions);
Introduction to the scientific turnover of new terms or concepts (postulate definitions).
Secondly, the definitions allow us to build output procedures. Due to the definitions of the word acquire accuracy, clarity and unambiguity.
At the same time, the definition value should not be exaggerated. It should be borne in mind that they do not displays the entire content of the subject matter. The actual study of scientific theory does not boil down to mastering the sum of the definitions that are enclosed in them. The question of the accuracy of terms.
The correct principles in the hands of mediocre people turn out to be stronger than unsystematic and random attempts of genius ... Give Napoleon's false principles yourself, and the results that it will reach, at best, will be mediocre.
G. Emerson
Everyday knowledge is based on practical experience, but it is a NA scientific. Scientific knowledge arises on the basis of fixed results of observation and experiment, the correct processing, corresponding to logical packages, reasoning and common sense. The process of transformation of thought from ignorance to knowledge determines the methodology of science as a special teaching about the principles, forms and methods of scientific activity.
The novice researcher is extremely important to have an idea of \u200b\u200bthe methodology and methods of science, since it was in the first steps of scientific work that the greatest number of problems of methodological nature arises. The practice of working with masters and graduate students shows that young scientists are commonly ns enough of the experience of using the methods of scientific knowledge of a phenomenon or subject, technologies for conducting the experiment, the skills to properly process the results of modeling, the skills of the argument and logical deductions and so on.
The approaches to the concept of "methodology" are quite contradictory, and a rather significant number of scientists, even having a certain experience in science, do not differentiate the concepts of "method", "Methodology" and even "methodology".
The method is a way to know any phenomenon or the reality process, and the technique is a set of techniques to perform any work. In this regard, in domestic practice, a tradition was developed to consider the methodology as a teaching (theory) on the methods of scientific knowledge of the surrounding reality or as a system of scientific principles on which the study is based and the choice of combination of methods, methods and receptions, rules and norms of knowledge is based. For this there are no sufficient arguments, so consider these concepts more.
The method is a special formalized procedure for studying (solutions) of the scientific tasks of a certain type, consisting of interrelated and ordered in a certain sequence of operations and actions leading to the knowledge of any phenomenon or process. In other words, these are the rules and a way to achieve a private scientific goal, a certainly ordered sequence of actions of a scientist research on a specific scientific task, including research techniques and a variety of operations with actual material.
In terms of scientific research, methods can be general scientific or special (private); in terms of knowledge - theoretical and empirical; According to functions - methods of systematization, explanations, predictions, etc.; According to the accuracy of the results - deterministic and stochastic. In each scientific industry, there may be a complex of methods that improve Gai during the study. The choice of a specific method is determined by the nature of the actual material, the conditions and objectives of the study.
Noting the role and importance of the method in science, the outstanding French scientist and philosopher Rene Descartes wrote that "to search for the truth of things we need marched - ... reliable and lightweight rules, strictly observing which a person will never accept anything false for true and without spending in vain No effort of mind, but constantly, step by step increases knowledge, will come to the true knowledge of all that he will be able to know. " He clearly formulated four rules that distinguish any scientific method:
first, never take anything about the true nothing, what is clearly not sure;
secondly, share each of the difficulties under consideration on as many parts as it is necessary to allow them to be better;
thirdly, to have their thoughts in a certain order, starting with the subjects of the simplest and easily learned, and to go up little, as in steps, to the knowledge of the most complex;
fourth, doing lists everywhere so complete and reviews are so comprehensive to be sure that nothing is missed.
In contrast to the method, the technique is a set of methods, receptions and operations of a study of a study with a specific actual material for solving a private scientific task, as well as a set of rules, indicators and criteria that allow you to combine these methods and techniques among themselves, agree on the input and output parameters. .
As a rule, when developing any scientific work, the methods and methods of research dedicate its first section, since from a clear definition methodological foundations To a large extent, the achievement of the goals and objectives of the study depends. At the same time, the methodological foundations usually understand the main source provisions on which scientific research is based.
In accordance with the intelligent dictionary of the Russian language methodology (from Greek. jJETOSOS - Path, Method and Aoyos - Knowledge) - the overall set of techniques used in any activity. Methodology is the doctrine of the organization of activities, the system of concepts and their relationship, basic principles, methods, methods, methods and means of their implementation. And what is fundamentally a methodology for scientific research differs from the methodology of any other human activity? In principle - nothing. This approach is definitely determined and the subject of the methodology is the organization of activities.
Based on the said methodology of science- This is a conceptual presentation of the objectives, content and totality of techniques used in any science to obtain objective, accurate and systematized information on phenomena and processes, as well as on the patterns of relationships between them. That is, the methodology of science is a certain algorithm to achieve a model of knowledge as a theoretical goal and forming a program of receptions and methods of research as a practical purpose.
The philosophy of science considers the methodology as a doctrine of methods and procedures for scientific knowledge of the surrounding reality, as a system of scientific principles of thinking, on which scientific research is based and the choice of combination of methods, methods and techniques, rules and norms of knowledge is being based. Also, the methodology of science is considered as a section of the general theory of scientific knowledge.
Sometimes a scientific research methodology is interpreted solely as a science on research methods, which considers the combination of such methods, including:
- - methods of observation, collecting and processing scientific facts;
- - Rules for setting and formulating the scientific problem and generate scientific ideas;
- - methods of nomination and proof of working hypotheses;
- - methods for eliminating laws and patterns, constructing concepts and theories;
- - Methods of classification of systems and other ways of research.
All this indicates the meaningfulness and vagueness of the subject of the methodology of science.
In general, the methodology of science performs the following functions:
- - determines the ways to obtain scientific knowledge about the processes and phenomena of the surrounding reality;
- - makes it possible to choose ways of research, allowing to achieve certain scientific purposes;
- - ensures the systematic consideration of the phenomenon under study;
- - helps the transformation of scientific information into scientific theory;
- - ensures clarification and systematization of the conceptual apparatus;
- - Creates a system of scientific information and ways to formalize it.
These functions allow you to give the following definition.
Methodology of scientific research- This is the doctrine of the principles, forms, methods and regulations of research and scientific thinking in the mining of new scientific knowledge.
It is customary to consider three levels of science methodology: fundamental, or philosophical, level, general scientific level and technical methodological level of specific science.
Fundamental level of methodologyit is theoretical substantiation of scientific knowledge methods that have received the greatest development in the new philosophy since F. Bekon and R. Descarte. Scientific knowledge at this level is considered as an element of an external system - the cognitive activity of man in relation to the objective world.
A significant contribution to this level of the methodology was introduced by G. Hegel, which first emphasized the specific nature of the philosophical method, its difference from the methods of specific sciences, incorruptibility to them. It noted that the method should be considered in the context with the content of the study, since it is a driving force of content.
The idealist I. Kant considered the patterns of knowledge in the very thinking, he emphasized that in the midst of an inexperienced desire for unconditional knowledge. Kant proved the inability to build a system of speculative philosophy to preliminary research forms of knowledge and borders of our cognitive abilities. The dialectical logic of knowledge has become a universal tool for all sciences. As a method of knowledge of thinking, nature and society, it is the fundamental scientific principle of multidimensional research of reality. It makes it possible to justify causal relationships, find out the main contradictions between the essence and phenomenon, the content and form.
Dialectic not replaces specific scientific methods, and manifests itself in them and is implemented through the principle continuity and consistency of the methodology.
As part of this level, the principles of dialectics, which reveal the essential device of objective reality, have essential importance - determinism (Lat. determinare. - to determine) as an objective causal conditionality of all phenomena and isomorphism (GRSH. bOG. - the same, equal and rOR - form) as a relationship between compared objects having the same, identical structure.
Unlike the Hegelian concept, materialistic philosophy proceeds from the fact that the objective laws of nature and society are based on the methods of knowledge, the relationship of the theory with practice. In other words, materialism claims principled cognitive Nature.
In general, the fundamental philosophical level of the methodology forms the worldview of the scientist, and it is at this level that the meaningful general scientific concepts are formed performing the methodological foundations of fundamental scientific disciplines. Such concepts include, for example, a fairly general management theory, or the concept of the nosphere of the Vernadsky Academician.
The general scientific level of the methodologycorresponds to the methodological basics used in all sciences without exception, since any discovery has not only the subject, but also the total component, forces the conceptual apparatus, causes, conditions and approaches to previously known truths. At this level, the conditions and criteria of scientific relations, the language of science, general research methods are being developed. The study object is considered as a set of elements that are more convenient for knowledge. Elements of the research object act as an object, i.e. as part of the object.
The general scientific principles of the study include: systemic approach, complexity, historicism, functionality, cognitiveness, terminology, modelity.
Systems approach does not have a fixed subject area. It represents a general methodology for researching objects as complex systems and forms the nature, direction and style of scientific thinking in the study of any process. The basis of the systemic approach is a dialectical method involving an analysis of the objective world as a whole object in which everything is interconnected and is in continuous and natural movement and change due to the inevitable internal contradictions.
In accordance with the principles of the systemic approach, any test system should be considered as a set of interrelated elements and subsystems, but the description of its elements should not be a self-adherent nature, but should flow out of the tasks of the SS system and tasks. At the same time, it should be considered, on the one hand, as the subsystem in the system of higher level, and on the other hand, as a combination of its subsystems.
The system approach lies in the fact that the complex object of the study (system) is determined not only as its main elements, but also as the nature of the relationship and relations between them. This is the difference between the systemic approach from smaller - integrated or functional approaches.
Aspects (components) of the system approach are:
- - target - analysis of the goals and objectives solved by the system and its subsystems;
- - elemental - analysis of the composition of the components of the system, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics;
- - Structural - analysis of the architectonics of the system, so on. communication methods and organization of interaction of elements;
- - functioning - analysis of the processes occurring in the system and determining this behavior;
- - Communicative - analysis of communication and interaction of the system with the environment;
- - Management (integrative) - management analysis as the main system-forming factor;
- - Information - analysis of the processes of information exchange in the system.
The main tasks of the system approach are:
- - development of informative and formalized means of representing an object as a system;
- - a comprehensive study of the elements of the system, interactions and connections between them in all aspects of the system approach;
- - Building generalized models of system and se properties, including models of their dynamics and targeted behavior, development and management processes.
For implementation, during the study of the requirements of the systemic approach, beginner researchers may be given the following recommendations:
- - link private scientific tasks with a common goal of research;
- - consider phenomena or processes in their structural complexity (the set of components of the elements and their hierarchyness), grouping elements of the system for the purpose and relative independence of the functions, forming subsystems;
- - allocate the most important and priority elements or processes;
- - consider the relationship and interdependence of the elements of the internal and external environment of the object of the study;
- - study elements of phenomena or processes, taking into account their retrospectives (as arose, as developed, for what they came);
- - In technical, biological and social studies, strive to allocate elements of the lower level, which can influence the entire system, but at the same time focus on the main thing, without deepening in the details.
The system approach in science allows you to increase the likelihood of obtaining the expected result and requires the presentation and study of objects as a system.
This principle is of paramount importance in the study of management issues, since, on the one hand, manageability is a system-forming principle, on the other, the principle predetermines the need to explore management impacts and relationships in their continuousness in different functional subsystems and in structural elements, at various hierarchical levels, Moreover, both vertically and horizontally (by elements of the managed system).
A complex approach It is to study all sides of the phenomenon under consideration. The principle of complexity implies strict accounting of the interaction of many different, sometimes contradictory factors that affect the phenomenon under consideration or process. The study of various aspects predetermines the use of methods and achievements of various adjacent areas of science, objectively exploring the phenomenon from different sides. An integrated approach allows us to identify contradictions in the functioning and development of the object under consideration, determine the ways to overcome them.
This is of particular importance for the study of socio-economic systems, which requires the study of the complex of issues: organizational, economic, social, technical, methodical.
Historicism - The principle of knowledge of things and phenomena in their development, formation, formation and in connection with the conditions that determine them. A simplified understanding of this principle is that it makes no sense to open up what has long been open. This is the most unproductive path of research.
As the principle of theoretical research, historicism is a fixation of not any change, even a qualitative, and such a change, which expresses the formation of specific properties and connections of things that determine their essence and qualitative originality.
Historism involves the recognition of irreversibility and the continuity of changing things, but ns means presenting information in a simple chronological sequence. He suggests the disclosure of the impregnate patterns, the relationship of certain phenomena in the processes under consideration.
15 this could be convinced when studying the first chapter of the monograph. The practical importance of the history of the management science consists not only in the fact that the story acts as a keeper accumulated in the management of experience. Its value is also in the disclosure and understanding of the logic of the development of methods and approaches to the management of socio-economic systems, identifying the dynamics, communication and interaction of facts that caused the patterns of development of science.
Functionality - This is the establishment of sustainable relationships and interdependence between phenomena or values \u200b\u200bin which the change in some values \u200b\u200bcauses certain changes to others. Each element of the system performs certain functions that work on system-wide functions. And if the structure characterizes the system in statics, then functionality - in dynamics.
Cognitiveness - This is the principal possibility of scientific knowledge of objects, processes and phenomena of surrounding reality. This principle is associated with the general philosophical theory of knowledge and is a methodological basis for many sciences.
Terminology Fixation of the results of cognitive activity in terms adopted in this scientific industry and reflecting the appropriate concept. This principle creates the possibility of communication.
Modeliness - The ability of scientific theory in various forms to display, reproduce vehicles or other objective phenomena and processes of real validity in the form of real (material) or abstract (ideal) hypotheses, theories, models. In this case, hypothesis, theory, model as a certain intermediate auxiliary system must have the following mandatory properties:
- - to be in objective accordance with the object of knowledge;
- - to replace this object in a certain attitude (system);
- - give information about this object, obtained based on the study of this model and strict compliance of the "Model - Object" transition rules.
Methodological level of specific sciences (private scientific methodology)it is a totality of ideas or specific methods of specific science. The concept of paradigm is connected with this level - a system of scientific views, ideas, scientific achievements in a certain field of science. At this level, it usually develops different standards, standard methods, guidelines and working instructions, which regulate research activities and experimental design developments. This also includes the choice of samples, measurement standards, as well as units systems. physical quantities and their dimension. The importance of this methodological level also says the fact that it was at this level that science with practice is being carried out.
The methodological foundations of branches of science are distinguished primarily by research methods. And there are methods common to different sciences, and there are methods specific applicable only in this science. The search for the methodological foundations of a specific science requires researcher:
- - study of scientific works of leading scientists who have developed a private scientific methodology in this scientific industry;
- - critical analysis of scientists who lead a scientific search for the problem of interest to us or are engaged in this industry indirectly;
- - generalizations of scientists' ideas that have directly studied this problem;
- - conducting research of specific approaches to solve specific problems with practitioners;
- - analysis of the concepts of this scientific industry both from the point of view of theory and practice.
Each science has a comprehensive complex and special methods Research. General and special methods of studying the theory of management will be considered in more detail in the following chapters of the monograph.
The method is a set of rules, techniques, operations of practical or theoretical development of reality. It serves to obtain and substantiate objectively true knowledge.
The nature of the method is determined by many factors: the subject of the study, the degree of community of tasks, accumulated experience, the level of development of scientific knowledge, etc. Methods suitable for one field of scientific studies are unsuitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, many outstanding achievements in science - the consequences of the transfer and the use of methods that have proven themselves in other areas of research. Thus, on the basis of the methods used, opposite processes of differentiation and integration of sciences occur.
The doctrine of methods is a methodology. It seeks to streamline, systematize the methods, to establish the suitability of their use in different fields, to answer the question of what kind of conditions, funds and actions are necessary and sufficient to implement certain scientific purposes.
The variety of human activity causes the use of various methods that can be classified according to various reasons. In scientific knowledge, methods are used general and specific, empirical and theoretical, high-quality and quantitative, etc.
The methodology of science is developing a multi-level concept of methodological knowledge that distributes all methods of scientific knowledge to the degree of community and sphere. With this approach, 5 main groups of methods can be distinguished:
-Flexible methods(are extremely common, i.e. not only general scientific, in their use go beyond science, have a guiding nature, significantly affect the choice of the subject of research, its funds and rules. Thus, philosophical methods perform the role of general-flow regulators, worn oriented, But not prescriptive in nature. The set of philosophical regulators acts as an effective means if it is mediated by other more specific methods. Philosophical regulators are broadcast to scientific research through general scientific and specific scientific methods. The methodological value of philosophy is directly depending on which extent it relies on The knowledge of the universal substantive links of the objective world. For philosophical methods, for example, dialectical: forms of thinking should be mobile and flexible, similar to the mobility and variability of the world around us. The most important principles of dialectics - historicism (consideration of the subject in its historical development), comprehensiveness of the consideration of the object, determinism, etc.);
-general scientific approaches and research methodscan be considered as overall methods of knowledge that allow us to combine observations and experiments, as well as correctly build appropriate reasoning. Such methods include systemic, structurally functional, probabilistic, formalization method, etc.;
-private scientific (or specific scientific) methods, i.e. means of methods and principles, research techniques and procedures used in a particular branch of science. Specific methods of individual sciences have their own characteristics depending not only from the general scientific level of knowledge, but also due to the peculiarities of a particular area of \u200b\u200bscientific knowledge. The properties of concluding or special methods should be clarity, validity (or absence of arbitrariness), the subordination of a specific purpose, performance as the ability to ensure the achievement of the intended goal, fruitfulness as the ability to ensure not only the main, but also "side" results, reliability as ability to be a great degree of probability ensure the receipt of truth knowledge, efficiency;
-disciplinary methodsconsidered as a system of receptions used in one or another discipline that occurred at the junction of science or in any industries of science, as well as this group includes interdisciplinary research methods as a set of integrative methods aimed at the "joints" of scientific disciplines.
Thus, in medicine, along with general scientific and narrowly social (private) methods, it is necessary to use common-philosophical methods that provide a holistic systematic approach to issues of norms and pathology, health and illness. Consider on specific examples, the use of a dialectical method in medical practice. The disease itself is already a dialectical and controversial process (A.A. Bogomolets, speaking about the unity of such opposites began as a norm and pathology, wrote that "the first includes the second as its internal contradiction"), therefore, the analysis of the disease and the pathogenesis process In general, it is impossible outside the reflection and application of laws, principles, categories of dialectics.
The dialectical method is applicable already at the initial stage - understanding the essence and causes of the disease. The current state of medical knowledge gives the right to argue that no disease cannot be reduced to the random episode of exogenous origin, to a simple hit in the body, say infectious start. The essence of the disease does not consist in external effects, but in the content of disturbed vital activity. The cause of the disease is not only an external factor, but also the body's response to this factor. Unfortunately, medicine and today is found with statements that the main internal contradiction in the development of living systems is a contradiction between the organism and the environment. When in modern medicine it is announced that the main cause of the disease is an external etiological factor (i.e. the external contradiction is declared the main in the emergence, the course and development of the pathological process), medicine faces the problem of philosophical illiteracy, with the destruction of a dialectical approach - here is a dialectical The principle of organic determinism (external impact is specifically refracted through internal features living systems).
During the disease in the body, two sides are opposed - "Paul" (pathogenesis) and "Protection" (Santogenesis). By causing the internal contradiction of the disease, they are simultaneously connected with each other and deny each other. The use of the dialectical method allows to investigate their interchangeability and interpenetration, mutualism of protective and damaging reactions.
Facts indicate that the same mechanism can act as a function of protection and as a pathological process: Protective-adaptive mechanisms at a certain phase of their increments are transformed into their opposite. Thus, the body has a single evolutionary developed system of life, which under certain conditions can move into a pathological condition and vice versa. The physiological process at a certain stage of its development turns into a pathological process, which is also adaptive, but already stopped being protective. For example, fibrinolysis can be considered as a protective and adaptive mechanism that helps to eliminate the fibrin sediments and the reduction of blood flow. However, an excessive increase in fibrinolysis that occurs as an adaptive reaction with a common blood coagulation of blood, leads to the Afibrinogenemia, disorders, the hollow resistance of blood vessels and pathological bleeding. So the adaptive reaction ceases to be protective. In these cases, the doctor will have to suppress the protective and adaptive process.
Or another example: until recently it was believed that under the influence of outgoing incentive fabrics of incentives begins the transition of leukocytes from blood in tissue. The leukocyte function was considered only as a protective, manifestable phagocytic activity. In the laboratory prof. I.A.Ovina (Obninsk) appeared the facts that changed the traditional (protective) idea of \u200b\u200bthe role of leukocytes in inflammation. The emigration of leukocytes, which is previously considered only as a protective and adaptive manifestation of the inflammatory response, is actually at the same time one of the mechanisms leading to pathological processes. These and other examples show that the separation of mechanisms for pathological and protective as coexisting and opposing among themselves does not correspond to modern dialectical thinking.
The dialectical unity of the local and common during the course of the disease is manifested in the fact that the degree of localization of the pathological process, its relative autonomy, the nature of the flow depends on the state of the organism as a whole. Clinical practice and experiments prove that there are no absolutely local and absolutely general processes in the body: with the leading role in the body, the expression and relatively local, relatively local, relatively autonomous processes are found in the organism. So, not all burn causes a burn disease. Limited over the area surface burns are not accompanied by a complete loss of the skin as an organ from a holistic system of the body. If we are dealing with an extensive and deep burn associated with leather sacrifice on a significant area, then the function of the skin is already significantly changed. The body outlines deep restructuring and violation of the vital activity of all systems and organs. The complex of burn disease develops. With a deep burn area from 20% of the body surface and above, the limit of the compensatory and adaptive capabilities of the body, which leads to death. So local (burn) turns into a common - burn disease. At the same time, the general (burn disease) continues to be bonded with the predominant localization of the disease of the skin (burn). Only due to the integrity of the body, we can talk about the relative locality, independence and autonomy of the pathological process. Accounting for complex dialectics of the part and the whole, general and local, unity and struggle of the opposites and other dialectical principles and grounds allows, applying a dialectical method in medicine, approach the problem of illness as a complex contradictory and interdependent process; In the work of a practical doctor, the use of a dialectical method in many cases is the basis for developing the right tactics of treatment.
The most important for the practice of scientific knowledge is the study of specific methods of empirical and theoretical studies, with an analysis of the overall methods of knowledge.
The main scientific reference materials of empirical research - observation, measurement, experiment.
Observation - This is a deliberate and purposeful (due to the task of the study) perception of the object. The main requirements for scientific observation is the uniqueness of the plan, the presence of strictly defined methods and means, the objectivity of the results. The latter is ensured by the ability to control through re-observation, or the use of other research methods, in particular the experiment. Measure - The research method at which the ratio of one value is set to another, which serves as standard, standard. The common goal of any measurements is to obtain numeric data, allowing to judge not so much about the quality as the number of certain states of the object being studied. Distinguish direct and indirect measurement procedures. Indirect include, for example, measuring objects, processes, etc., which are removed from us or are not directly perceived. The value of the measured value is established at the same time indirectly. Indirect measurements are carried out only when a general relationship is known between values \u200b\u200bthat allows you to derive the desired result from already known data.
The emergence of modern natural science and science is generally related to the development of the experiment . Experiment - The method, with which the phenomena of reality is studied in controlled, managed, precisely accounted as conditions. We can say that the experiment is an idealized experience. It makes it possible to monitor the course of changing the phenomenon, actively influence it (if there is a need for this), compare the results obtained. The active intervention of the researcher in the course of the natural process, the artificial creation of their interaction conditions does not mean that the experimenter itself (at will and arbitrariness) "creates" properties of objects. So, neither the light pressure nor the conditional reflexes are the properties invented by experimenters, but they are revealed in experimental (artificially created) situations. The experiment, being the highest form of an empirical study, allows you to study not only what is striking, but also what is often hidden in the depths of the phenomenon and expresses its essential characteristics. The most important requirement for the experiment is the purity of its holding (the experiment is the cleaner, the more fully the studied object is isolated from external influences).
As one of the forms of practice (and the practice of a specific organized) experiment performs an important role of the criterion of the truth of scientific knowledge in general. In organic communication with observation and measurement, the experiment forms the empirical basis of scientific knowledge.
The main scientific methods of theoretical research - formalization, axiomatic, hypothetical and deductive.
A special method of theoretical thinking - formalization. This method is consigned to the construction of abstract-mathematical models that reveal the essence of the real processes studied. When formalizing, we operate with not studied objects, but their signs, signs of signs replace the statements about the properties and relationships of real objects. Thus, when formalizing, a generalized sign model is created, which allows to detect the structure of various phenomena and processes, distracted by their quantitative characteristics; According to the laws of logic, mathematics it is possible to remove reliable formal investigations within the framework of this formalized system.
Axiomatic method It is that initially a researcher to build the theory sets a set of source positions (axioms) that do not require evidence. According to predetermined rules from Axiom (postulates), investigations are derived. The combination of source axia and the proposals derived on the basis of them forms an axiomatically constructed theory. The axiomatic method developed as science develops (from "started" Euclide to mathematical logic). The construction of formalized axiomatic systems has led to great success (primarily in mathematics), however, already in 1931. K. Gödel proved the theorem about the incompleteness of formal axiomatic systems. One of the consequences of the Gödel Theorem is that it is impossible to resolve the issue of consistency of such systems using only their own funds. Thus, an axiomatic method, quite fruitfully affecting the development of scientific knowledge turned out to be incomplete and far from always applicable; Problematically use of an axiological method for complex developing systems, which mainly studies modern science. Developed theoretical knowledge is increasingly based on hypothetical-deductive structures that make up the basis of the hypothetical and deductive method.
Hypothetical and deductive - The scientific justification method based on the removal of the consequences from the parcels, the truth value of which is unknown. The use of this method is divided into 3 stages:
Hypothesis nomination (assumption of patterns in the study area or the existence of some object),
Derivation of the consequences of this hypothesis,
Check the resulting consequences (in terms of their truth or falsity).
If any consequences are false, then the initial hypothesis are either discarded or being adjusted. With the truth of the consequences, the rationale for the truth of the hypothesis can be carried out either by eliminating the hypothesis from other parcels, the truth of which is already established, or by refuting all alternative hypotheses, or by directly experimental verification on the empirical level of knowledge. In scientific knowledge, the first attempts to apply the hypothetical and deductive method were offered in the 17th century. The essence of the hypothetical and deductive deployment of the theory is that a hypothetical structure is first built, which deductively unfolds, forming a whole system of hypotheses, and then this system is exposed to a pilot check, during which it is specified and specified. Each hypothetical and deductive system implements a special research program, the essence of which expresses its basic hypothesis. Competition of hypothetical-deductive systems acts as a struggle of various research programs, in the struggle of competing programs, the one competes that which is best coordinated with the experienced data and performs heuristic functions, offering conclusions, unexpected and new to other programs.
Universal or overall (analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction, analogy, abstraction, modeling, idealization of others) are called methods that are equally used on the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge, as well as characteristic for everyday knowledge.
Analysis and synthesis -"Dismemberment" (mental) of the object under study for components for their detailed study and the subsequent combination of parts received as a result of the synthesis operation.
Deduction -the research method in which a private conclusion (concluding) is made on the basis of the laws based on the laws of logic, which is reliable and logically the following from the initial statement.
Induction - a study method, in which based on the set of single or private conclusions, stating the attribute to some objects of a particular class, is made a summary conclusion about the belonging of this feature to all class objects.
Analogy -the research method, in which, on the basis of the similarity of the signs of the objects under study, makes a probabilistic conclusion about the similarity of them in some other signs.
Abstraction -the method allowing to mentally allocate one and distract from other significant properties of the subject, which allows the researcher to concentrate on a certain side (fragment) of reality.
Modeling - method of research on models, i.e. Analogues (schemes, structures), certain fragments of reality, which are called originals. Between the model and the original, it must be similar to the characteristics, functions, structure, etc.
Idealization - mental design situation (object, phenomena), which is attributed to properties or relationships possible for the original in the "limit" cases. The results of such design are idealized objects (perfect gas, straight or point, etc.). Idealized objects are much easier real, which allows us to apply mathematical methods for their research. In addition, thanks to idealization, the processes are considered in their purest form, without random "bringing" from the outside. Any science uses idealization procedure. Idealization associated with modeling are preliminary conditions for a mental experiment.