Conversation method and its psychological features. Conversation as a learning method
The conversation method is a psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in conducting a thematically directed dialogue between a psychologist and respondent in order to obtain information from the latter.
In a psychological conversation, there is a direct interaction of the psychologist and the respondent in the form of an oral exchange of information. The conversation method is widely used in psychotherapy. It is also used as an independent method in advisory, political, legal psychology.
In the course of the conversation, a psychologist, being a researcher, directs, secretly or clearly, the conversation, during which asks the interviewed person questions.
There are two types of conversation:
· Managed
· Unmanaged
During the managed conversation, the psychologist actively controls the course of the conversation, supports the course of the conversation, establishes emotional contact. The uncontrollable conversation occurs with the greater in comparison with the initiative of the psychologist respondent. In an uncontrollable conversation, the focus is on the provision of respondents to speak out, while the psychologist does not interfere or almost not interfere with the respondent's self-expression.
In the case of both controlled, and unmanaged conversation from a psychologist, the existence of a verbal and non-verbal communication skill is required. Any conversation begins with the establishment of contact between the researcher and the respondent, while the researcher acts as an observer analyzing the external manifestations of the respondent's mental activity. Based on the observation, the psychologist implements rapid diagnostics and corrects the selected strategy of the conversation. At the initial stages of the conversation, the main task is considered the impulse of the subject under study to active participation in the dialogue.
The most important skill of the psychologist in the situation of the conversation is the ability to establish and maintain a rapport, while observing the purity of the study, avoiding irrelevant (preferring a reliable result) verbal and non-verbal influences on the subject, which can contribute to the active change in its reactions. To destroy the rapport with the respondent or to the provision of side suggestions on the respondent, careless statements on the part of the psychologist, made, for example, in the form of orders, threats, morals, councils, accusations, evaluation judgments regarding the respondent, calm and inappropriate jokes.
Conversations vary depending on the pursued psychological task. Allocate the following types:
· Therapeutic conversation
· Experimental conversation (in order to verify experimental hypotheses)
· Autobiographical conversation
· Collecting subjective history (collection of information about the identity of the subject)
· Collection of objective anamnesis (collecting information about familiar subjects)
· Telephone conversation
Interviews are related both to the method of conversation and to the polling method.
There are two styles of conversation, and in its course one can replace the other depending on the context.
The reflexive hearing is the style of conducting a conversation in which the active speech interaction of the psychologist and the respondent is supposed.
The reflexive hearing is used to implement accurate control of the correctness of the perception of the information received. The use of this conversation style can be associated with the personal properties of the respondent (for example, a low level of development of communication skills), the need to establish the meaning of the word that meant the speaking, cultural traditions (ethyl communication in the cultural environment to which the respondent and psychologist belong ).
Three main techniques to maintain the conversation and control of the information received:
1. Clarification (use of clarifying issues)
2. Perephrazing (the wording of the respond made in his own words)
3. A verbal reflection of the respondent's feelings by the psychologist
A non-reflective hearing is a conversation style, which uses only the need from the point of view of expediency, the minimum of words and techniques of non-verbal communication from the psychologist.
The nonflexive hearing is used in cases where there is a need to give a subject to say. It is especially useful in situations where the interlocutor exhibits the desire to express his point of view, to discuss its exciting topics and where he experiences difficulties in the expression of problems, it is easily knocked down with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe psychologist's intervention and behaves consolidated in connection with the social difference between the psychologist and the respondent.
Very often, when psychologists talk about the conversation in the professional circle, it is necessary to meet with perplexity or indulgence views, irony or complete indifference to the topic: Conversation - this is something old "unscientific, it is dawn psychology, psychotherapy; What is the relationship in general to modern science with its ideals of accuracy and objectivity? And indeed, at first glance, it seems that the conversation method (such a vague, such an informalized, such subjective) does not withstand comparisons with accurate experimental procedures, with rigidly controlled experimental conditions and "objective" methods for evaluating data. So, on the one hand, computers, mathematical processing of results, special equipment and equipment, and on the other - conversation, just a conversation, with the complete absence of visual, real "weapons" of the researcher. How to investigate if you can't push the magic button if there is no saving technique if nothing is presented on the screen? Instead, face to face with him, with that others, but the same as I, a person - a step in the unknown, full risk, danger and temptation. So, the conversation is a meeting of two people, but the experiment is also a dialogue of two consciousnesses, two personalities, the same meeting, often not direct, mediated by the most diverse "guns" and "objects" (equipment, techniques, a sign on the door, a white bathrobe , instructions, silence.). After all, the situation of the experiment and everything that is - from the experimental task to external view The rooms, from the prestige of the institution to the behavior of the duty on the watch, are full of meaning and meanings, "say" and send messages about who is behind the experiment, about its creator and organizer. What is the position of the so-called test? He "reads" or, otherwise, "distributing" these messages and, if they find a response in his personality, if they are interested in it, trying to answer, entering into a dialogue, maybe in a dispute, maybe in the fight, maybe Going to a fascinating journey to the world offered to him - the world of another person, coming to this world and life. Thus, and for the experiment we see the relationship between two people, the dialogue of two consciousness, two positions, two worlds, and maybe not two. If you continue the excursion to the methods of empirical psychological research, it turns out that none of them exists without this dialogue, without a concerned meeting of two people, which is their indispensable condition. Otherwise, the tests would refuse to overcome the slightest difficulties and simply did not "worked" above the tasks requiring at once a lot of voltage and dedication. Thus, traditionally opposed methods - the experiment and conversation - coincide in the most significant conditions (establishing relationships and communication between two people), reflecting the specifics of psychological research (however, not only the psychological, but also of any humanitarian, directly engaged in the study of human behavior and consciousness ).
The conversation program is quite constant for each scale and is built in about the following sequence:
1) clarifying the content of the current assessment;
2) clarifying the content of the scales;
3) Clarification of the content and causes of the desired estimate.
The tactics of the experimenter in this case is relatively free. They may be given different questions depending on the characteristics of the subject, the course of the conversation, etc. It is necessary for each of the items to ask the subject to bring explanatory examples illustrating its judgments about themselves or other people.
For example, possible questions on the "Mind" scale:
In what sense do you understand the word "mind" when you rate yourself?
How do you ourselves assessed by the mind?
Who could you put on the scale on the mind a little above yourself? Bring, if possible, a description of such a person;
Who is the most stupid from your point of view?
Who would you make on the scale to put a little lower than yourself? Describe more specifically what kind of person is it?
What mind would you like to possess?
What do you miss to get closer to ideal?
Approximate sequence of questions on the "Happiness" scale:
How did you evaluate yourself in "happiness"? (It is advisable to achieve a clear verbal assessment. This is important from two points of view: first, how much this assessment correlates with the point marked on the scale; for example, the middle is indicated on the scale, and the subject says that it is very "happy"; secondly, A verbal assessment allows you to go to find out its meaningful part).
How could you describe your fortune of happiness?
Who, from your point of view, the happiest and why?
Who, from your point of view, the most unhappy and why?
What do you miss to be very happy?
What do you need to change to achieve this condition?
If the subject gives a low estimate according to this or any other scale, it is necessary to clarify: "Who is to blame for the situation?". It is important to understand who the subject is accused of unfortunately: himself or the world itself, it is necessary to determine with a greater or less accuracy, which properties of themselves or what properties of the world have in mind the subject.
A similar conversation procedure is carried out in the presence of a very high mark on the scale. In this case, the subject is asked: "What is the listened with such a high assessment? Whether you are the reason, or other people, the circumstances of life? .. Such questions can be asked to be tested if there is very low or very high marks on any of the scales present.
After the end of the conversation on the four main scales - "Health", "character", "mind", "happiness" (it is necessary to withstand exactly such a sequence in conversation) - the experimenter appeals to an additional scale "Knowledge of yourself" here a range of questions somewhat different: in The conversation must be found out than the assessment of the knowledge of oneself; What are the causes of its height on the scale; What is knowledge of oneself, according to the subject; What people know themselves what it is manifested; Is it difficult to know himself whether it is possible to learn this; If possible, as if it is impossible, then why, etc.
A few words about the behavior of the experimenter during experience. We have already said that the conduct of the conversation requires a great mastery from a psychologist. Every negligence, inattention to the personality of the subject, an attempt to directly dictate to him requirements and instructions will inevitably lead to the failure of experience, to turning the conversation - at best - in formal questionnaire.
The situation of this task is to present the scale of self-assessment - facilitates the task of the experimenter, since the subject is given some specific material, which is a good pretext, "hook" for further conversation, deploying its program. However, in these conditions, the experimental requirements remain high. From the very beginning, it began to strive to show the interest of the experimenter in the responses of the subject. In this case, the experimenter should not be multi-dimensional, it is necessary to avoid any evaluation judgments if possible. It is multi-mindedness, the desire to constantly interfere in a conversation, comment, evaluate, direct the subject, to suggest a desirable answer, as a rule, characterizes an inexperienced psychologist. It should also be understood from the very beginning and remember that the conversation, even standardized, is not limited to the requirement to be so impeccable strict as an experiment, say, in the field of study of the movement of the eye or short-term memory. The tests for one reason or another may violate the conversation planned in advance, to go away, linger on insignificant, at first glance, questions. Such actions are not, however, the "breakdown" of the experiment, but, on the contrary, they make a situation of conversation more interesting, so they must also be carefully recorded, as well as the material "planned" conversation.
During the entire study time, the behavior of the experimenter must be very tactful and restrained.
An axiom for a psychologist is the observance of the principle of anonymity of the data obtained on the sides of the personality of the subject, the right to use these data only within the framework of the purely scientific and professional goals.
Having finished finding out the content of the tested marks on all five scales, the experimenter proceeds to the final part of the conversation. To do this, the statements of this type are used: "So we got to the end of our work. We discussed your estimates set on the scales. Chat with you was very interesting, I am very grateful to you for your work. But maybe you have questions and me? Do you want to ask them now? .. It is very important what the subject will ask how much it will intersect with the content of the conversation. Finally completing the conversation, it is necessary to once again express appreciation to the subject.
Fixation of the conversation and its protocol. Registration of the conversation should not interfere with the communication of the subject and researcher. The most convenient form of registration is a hidden or open recording of the conversation on the tape ribbon. After all, in addition to the content of the conversation, the intonational features of the test of the test, its emotional painting, pauses, reservations, etc. are recorded on the tape tape.
To remove the tested voltage when the tape recorder is open to the tape recorder, it is necessary to explain to him, for what purpose is being recorded, - in order for the experimenter during the conversation, the experimenter is not distracted by the protocol. It is necessary to immediately turn on the tape recorder and give the subject to listen to the record of the votes of both participants in the conversation. Thanks to this simple reception, the tape recorder becomes the same part of the "psychological field", like, for example, the table behind which the interlocutors are sitting. The microphone and tape recorder are located on the side of the interlocutors, so that, with good quality recording, this equipment is not still in the center of the field of view of the subject, but was located closer to the periphery.
However, in the presence of a tape recorder, and especially in its absence, the experimenter is obliged to lead the protocol and fixes the behavior of the behavior of the test during the conversation, its gestures, facial expressions, pantomimics, emotional reactions. In the general form, the form of the protocol is as follows:
At the top on each page of the protocol, the test initials are recorded, the date and time of the experiment (beginning and end), in the graph of the left, the stages of the conversation are recorded, the names of the scales, replicas, questions and remarks of the experimenter are recorded; In the middle column - the behavior of the test, its gestures, facial expressions, emotional reactions; In the right column - statements, answers and explanations of the subject.
Entries in the protocol "performed both during a conversation and after it (when rewriting from a tape ribbon for subsequent processing) must be literal, and not abbreviated.
It is the detailed protocol performed according to the specified form, which becomes the subject of subsequent analysis.
Description and analysis of the conversation content. First of all, it should be described by the general behavior of the test during the entire experience, its dynamics from the beginning to the end of the conversation, changing gestures and facial expressions of the subject, how cowardly it is holding it, etc.
Then it should be detailed to dwell on how communication was built during the conversation, which were the reaction of the test for the questions of the experimenter, the nature of the answers, their exploration and meaningfulness, which position occupied the subject during communication (active, passive, formal, etc.) and What exactly was manifested.
It is necessary to give the characteristic of the speech of the subject: the features of the stylization of its phrases; richness of the dictionary; the presence of emotional expressive expressions in speech, the nature of intonation dynamics in speech; Use of speech stamps, etc.
It is necessary to further list the main topics that arose during the conversation in the implementation of its program, try to establish their semantic links and suggest the reason for the occurrence of these connections, based on the subject of the subject and their content.
Then it is necessary using the marks on the scales "the subjects delivered, and the protocol of the conversation with it, to analyze the results of self-assessment for each of the four main scales (" Health "," Mind "," character "," happiness "). It is necessary:
Designate the height of self-esteem on this scale (relevant and desired);
Analyze the information about the content
relevant self-esteem;
Analyze the obtained information about the content of the scale of the scale (i.e., the extreme points of the entire subjective "field of evaluations", within which the subject determines itself);
Analyze the information received on the content of the desired self-assessment;
Make a conclusion based on the results of the study of this scale.
Following the analysis of four main scales, proceed to the analysis of the results obtained on an additional scale ("knowledge of yourself"). Special attention should be paid here to the presentation of the subject on its capabilities of self-knowledge, on the nature of the criticality of this subject.
In conclusion, it is necessary to analyze the general nature of the self-assessment of the subject.
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Conversation- This is the method of verbal receipt of information from the person of the person being interested in the behaimal conversation with it.
In principle, the conversation as a means of communication can be conducted not only orally, but also in writing. Let's say the conversation with other people in the form of correspondence, a conversation with myself in the form of a diary. But the conversation is empirical method It implies precisely oral communication. Moreover, this is the communication of the studied person, firstly, not with any other person, but with the researcher and, secondly, this is a communication at the time of the study, i.e., current communication, and not retranged in time. The written conversation with both these conditions simultaneously does not satisfy. Even if the "written interlocutor" studied is the researcher, that in scientific practice the phenomenon is extremely rare, then the "interview" itself in the form of correspondence is inevitably dragged in time and space and is interrupted by significant pauses. Theoretically, it is possible to submit such a conversation (at least with a psychotherapeutic goal), but in the practical work of the researcher, such correspondence conversations are very problematic. Therefore, a conversation is generally accepted as a method to understand in the version of oral communication, and the written version of the conversation as a way to communicate with the methods of studying documents or products of activity. It is in such a interpretation that we will consider the conversation method.
The conversation is widely used in social, medical, age-related (especially child), legal, political psychologies. As an independent conversation method is particularly intensively used in advisory, diagnostic and psychocorrection work. In the activities of the practical psychologist, the conversation often plays the role of not only a professional method of collecting psychological data, but also means of informing, beliefs, education.
Conversation as a method is neutral from conversation as a method of human communication. Therefore, the qualified application of conversation is unthinkable without fundamental general and socio-psychological knowledge, communication skills, communicative competence. Since any communication is impossible without perceiving by people of each other and without aware of them of their "I", the extension method is closely connected with the method of observation (both external and internal). Perceptual information obtained during the interview is often no less important and is abundant than the information is communicative. Unpainting communication conversation with observation is one of its characteristic features. Wherein psychological conversationi.e. the conversation aimed at obtaining psychological information and providing a psychological impact on the identity, perhaps, can be attributed along with introspection to the most specific method for psychology.
The researcher usually tries to lead a conversation in a free, relaxed manner, striving to "reveal" the interlocutor, having fostered him by placing him. Then the probability of the sincerity of the interlocutor increases significantly. And the more sincere, the higher the adequacy of the data obtained in the conversation and surveys. Most frequent reasons insincerity can be: concern to show yourself with a bad or funny side; reluctance to mention other persons and especially give them characteristics; refusal to disclose those aspects of life that respondent seems (correctly or erroneously) intimate; concerns that adverse conclusions will be made from the conversation; "Failure" conducting a conversation; misunderstanding the purpose of the conversation.
Usually very important for the successful development of the conversation has the most start a conversation.His first phrases can cause either interest and desire to enter into a dialogue with the researcher, or, on the contrary, the desire to evade him. For supporting good contact With the source, the researcher is recommended to demonstrate its interest in his personality, to his problems, to his opinions. But from open consent, and even more so disagreement with the opinion of the respondent should be refrained. Your lively participation in conversation, interest in her, the researcher can express facial expressions, poses, gestures, intonation, additional issues, specific observations of the type "It is very interesting!" . The conversation is always in one way or another accompanied by observation of the appearance and behavior of the studied. This observation gives additional, and sometimes basic information about the interlocutor, about its attitude to the subject of the conversation, to the researcher and the accompanying environment, about his responsibility and sincerity.
Specific psychological conversation unlike everyday consists in the inequality of the positions of the interlocutors.The psychologist here appears, as a rule, the initiative side, it is he who directs the topics of the conversation and asks questions. His partner usually acts as responsible for these questions. Such asymmetry of functions are fraught with a decrease in confidence of the conversation. And the focusing of these differences and can destroy the balance in the interaction of the researcher with the studied. The latter begins to "close", intentionally distorted by him information, simplify and schematize the answers up to one-way statements of the type "yes-no", and even dodge contact. "Therefore, it is very important that the conversation does not turn into interrogation, as this makes its effectiveness equal to zero."
Another important feature of the psychological conversation is due to the fact that in society developed attitude to a psychologistas a specialist in human soul and human relationship. Its conversation partners are often configured to receive a momentous resolution of their problems, expect advice on behavior in everyday life and unambiguous answers to the questions of spiritual life, including questions from the "Eternal category". And a psychologist, a leading conversation, must comply with this system of expectations. It must be sociable, tactful, tolenen, emotionally sensitive and responsive, observed and reflective, well erudited on a wide range of questions and, of course, should have deep psychological knowledge.
But the so-called managed conversation is not always effective, i.e. the conversation in which the initiative is on the side of the researcher. Sometimes more productive is an unmanaged conversation form. Here the initiative passes to the respondent, and the conversation takes the character of confession. This version of the conversation is typical for psychotherapeutic practice when a person needs to "speak." Then the specific quality of the psychologist is of particular importance, as the ability to listen. This quality is generally one of the basic for fruitful and pleasant communication, but in this case it acts as the necessary and most important element of the professional activity of the psychologist. No wonder psychologists from time to time recall the saying of the founder of Stoicism of Zenona from the kition (336-264 BC): "Two ear and one language are given to us more to listen and talk less."
Listen in conversation- This does not mean just not to say or wait for your turn to speak. This is an active process that requires increased attention to what we are talking about, and by whom you are talking. The ability to listen is two aspects.The first is external, organizational.We are talking about the ability to focus on the topic of conversation, actively participate in it, supporting interest in the conversation from the partner, and then, as I. Atvater says, "listen - more than hear." "Hear" is understood as the perception of sounds, and "listen" - as perception of the meaning and meaning of these sounds. The first is the physiological process (according to Atventar, physical). The second is the process of psychological, "volitional act, including the highest mental processes. To listen, you need a desire. " This level of hearing provides proper perception and intellectual understanding of the speech of the interlocutor,but insufficient for the emotional understanding of the interlocutor himself.
The second aspect of the hearing - internal, empathy.Even the most passionate desire to speak with another person does not guarantee the fact that he will "reach us", and we will "hear it", that is, in his problems, I will feel His pain or offense, you really will be rejected by his success. Such empathy can vary from easy sympathy to the strongest empathy and even identifying oneself with a partner for communication. In this case, perhaps, "hear is more than listening." We, carefully listening to the interlocutor, hearing him inner world. The author of the famous Customer-centered psychotherapy K. Rogers especially paid attention to this moment the conversation: "I feel pleasure when I truly hear a person ... When I find yourself able to really hear another person, I touch him, and it enriches my life. .. I like to hear me ... I can confirm that when you are upset about something and someone really hears you, without appreciating, without taking responsibility for you, not trying to change you, then feeling From this damn good! When I listened and when I heard me, I was able to adhere my world in a new way and continue my way ... the person who heard, first of all corresponds to you thanks. If you heard a person, not just his words, then almost always his eyes moisturize - these are tears of joy. He feels relief, he wants to tell you more about his world. He rises with a new feeling of freedom. It becomes more open for the change process ... I also know how hard it is when you are taken for a person who you are not, or when you hear what you did not say. It causes anger, the feeling of futility of struggle and disappointment. I'm terribly upset and clicked in myself if I try to express something deep my, personal, some part of my own inner world, and the other person does not understand me. I came to be convinced that such experiences make some people with psychotic. When they lose hope that someone can hear them, then their own inner world, which is becoming more and more bizarre, begins to be the only refuge. "
Thus, the ratio of the concepts of "listening" and "hear" is not definitely and dynamically. This dialectic must be taken into account by a professional psychologist when conducting a conversation. In some cases, the first level of communication is quite enough, and it may even be unwanted "slipping" to the level of empathy (let's say, in order to comply with the social distance). In other cases, without emotional complicity, it is not necessary to do the necessary information from the partner "Do not extend." This or that level of the hearing is determined by the tasks of the study, the situation, the personality features of the interlocutor.
Whatever the form of the conversation, it always has exchange replicas.These replicas may be a narrative, and questional nature. It is clear that exactly the replicas of the researcher direct the conversation, determine its strategy, and the replicas of the respondent deliver the search for information. And then the replicas of the lead can be considered questions, even if they are not expressed in a questioning form, but the replicas of his partner are answers, even if they are expressed in the questionality. Experts believe that the overwhelming number of responses (up to 80%) in speech communication reflects such reactions to speech and the behavior of the interlocutor, as an assessment, interpretation, support, clarification and understanding. True, these observations relate mainly to the "free" conversation, that is, to conversations in a natural situation with the equivalent positions of partners, and not to research situations with the asymmetry of the interlocutors. Nevertheless, in a psychological conversation, these trends apparently persist.
When choosing (or appointing), people on the role of interlocutors in the study of not essential information about sex features in speech communication."The analysis of tape recorders of conversations made it possible to establish significant differences in the behavior of men and women. When two men are talking or two women, they interrupt each other about the same often. But when a man and a woman speak, then a man interrupts a woman almost twice as often. Approximately one third of the conversation time a woman is going with thoughts, trying to restore the direction of the conversation, which was at the moment when it was killed. Apparently, men tend to focus more on the conversation conversation, while women pay attention to the very process of communication. A man usually listens attentively only 10-15 seconds. Then he begins to listen to himself and look for to add to the subject of the conversation. Psychologists believe that listening to yourself - the habit of purely men's, which is fixed by training in the refinement of the being of the conversation and acquire problems solving the skills. Therefore, a man stops listening and focuses on how to interrupt the conversation. As a result, men tend to give ready answers too quickly. They do not listen to the interlocutor to the end and do not ask questions to get more information before making conclusions. Men tend to notice mistakes on the merits of the conversation and instead of waiting for good statements, they grabs rather for an error. A woman who listening to the interlocutor will rather see him as a person, will understand the sense of speaking. Women are less common to interrupt the interlocutor, and when they interrupt them themselves, they return to those questions on which they were stopped. But this does not mean that all men are immune and incorrect listeners, such as the fact that all women are the listeners of mental and responsive. "
It is very important both when conducting a conversation, and in its interpretation, it isistic to take into account that some types of replicas, beyond which, naturally, there are certain mental peculiarities of a person and his attitude to the interlocutor may violate the course of communication up to its termination. Sometimes similar replicas are called communication barriers. These include: 1) Order, indication (for example, "speak clearer!", Repeat! "); 2) warning, threat ("You will also regret it"); 3) Promise - Trade ("Calm down, I will listen to you"); 4) teaching, moraling ("it is incorrect", "you should do so", "in our time there are such"); 5) Council, recommendation ("I suggest you do something like that", "try to do so"); 6) disagreement, condemnation, accusation ("You did it stupid", "you are mistaken", "I can no longer argue with you"); 7) consent, praise ("I think that you are right," "I am proud of you"); 8) the humiliation ("A, all of you are the same", "Well, Mr. Nniek?"); 9) Brank ("Round, you all spoiled!"); 10) Interpretation ("Yes, you yourself do not believe in what you say," now it is clear why you did it "); 11) Soothing, consolation ("all wrong", "I am also upset by this"); 12) Interrogation ("How do you intend to do?", "Who told you?"); 13) UTI from the problem, distraction, lucid ("Let's talk about a friend", "throw it out of my head", "Haha, it is not serious!").
Such replicas often violate the course of the interlocutor's thought, knock him off, cause to resort to protection, can cause irritation and even indignation. Of course, the reactions to these "barriers" are situratively, and it is not necessary to cause irritation, and even more so praise - indignation. But such negative to communicate the reaction is possible, and the probability of their appearance in a conversation is to a minimum - the duty of the psychologist.
Conversation method
Receiving information in the process of direct communication of the researcher with the respondent is characteristic of the conversation method (interview). The conversation is a more "psychological" survey form, since it has the interaction of subjects subordinate to certain socio-psychological laws. The most important condition for the success of the conversation is to establish the contact of the researcher with the respondent, in creating a trust atmosphere of communication. The researcher must arrange the respondent to himself, cause him to frankness.
The conversation method is a psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in conducting a thematically directed dialogue between a psychologist and respondent in order to obtain information from the latter.
The conversation is a psychology-specific method of studying human behavior, since in other natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of the study is impossible. Dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals psychological peculiarities another, called the conversation method. Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research.
The conversation is included as an additional method into the experiment structure at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives it instruction, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of an experimental interview. Researchers distinguish the clinical conversation, the component of the "clinical method", and a targeted survey "face to face" - interview. Content Conversations can be logged in fully or selectively depending on the specific objectives of the study. In the compilation of complete protocols, the psychologist can use a dictoon.
Compliance with all the necessary conversation conditions, including collecting preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method very effective tool psychological research. Therefore, it is desirable that the conversation is carried out taking into account the data obtained using such methods as observation and surveillance. In this case, its goal may include verification of preliminary conclusions arising from the results of psychological analysis and obtained when using these primary orientation methods in the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects.
In situations of oral speech communication, communicating dealt with their own speeches. Listening forms a speech in accordance with how the speaker's articulation applies to the processes in the air. The listener in the automated mode is selected, the launch and execution of the corresponding previously formed neuroprograms is that it does not perceive as speaking it. At speaking your processes that can not be a listener. A speaking can imagine that he transmits his thoughts to the listening, informs it, transmits information. The listening time can only have their own processes of thinking, the results of which can arrange speaking or not, but these results are also not given to the speaking directly. He can guess about them, having orientative models of the situation. The inadequacy of the display of speech communication situations is characteristic of most human beings. Psychologists are no exception. In the time of Radishchev, the "conversation" would be interpreted as "reading". If we take appropriate conventions, then M. Fasmer find: "... conversation" conversation, teaching "... (M. Fasmer, M., 1986, p.160). The reflective hearing can not be understood as an interruption of the speaker, but As a reflection, i.e. mapping itself in a state of hearing, addressing yourself, exercising an analysis of your own perception. Solving the issue: Does your model mean that he wants to talk from you that this model you put in line with you, apparently can be considered a reflexive hearing.
Types of conversation
Conversations vary depending on the pursued psychological task. Allocate the following types:
v Therapeutic conversation
v Experimental conversation (in order to verify experimental hypotheses)
v autobiographical conversation
v Collection of subjective history (collecting information about the identity of the subject)
v Collection of Objective Anamnesis (Collecting information about familiar subjects)
v telephone conversation
Usually the conversation of two people is similar to the verbal ping pong - the interlocutors speak turns. However, in consulting and psychotherapy, everything happens otherwise, especially at the beginning of the conversation. Here, the verbal activity of the consultant must be minimal so that the client can focus on the disclosure of his problems and difficulties. The consultant must not say so much how much to hear. The ability to listen to the expression of sincere interest to another person.
There are two important aspects associated with this skill. Firstly, each person has the need to communicate with another person on it important to him. Secondly, our tendency to support others or agree with them depends on how much they listen to us. It can be safely argued that the quality of relations between people in a large extent depends on the ability to listen and hear.
However, there are some circumstances that interfere carefully to listen. Often, what the client says does not correspond to the installation of the consultant, and it listens in the dark. The manner is widespread, often in counseling, when we are not so much listening to the interlocutor, how much we react to his reports, in thoughts formulating replicas, answers, questions, etc. It is only visibility of the hearing. One of the consequences of social learning is to avoid unnecessary information about another person, which sometimes encourages the consultant to resist the client's story about deep personal affairs, and the result of such resistance is again the inattentive hearing. Sometimes events tested by the client or affected themes cause unpleasant feelings: anxiety, voltage. The consultant, seeking to avoid an unpleasant state, may not hear some important details in the narration. Customers who are constantly complaining about their problems, especially for somatic symptoms (for example, psychosomatic patients).
Lisvating primarily represents feedback with the thoughts and feelings of the client, encourages the client to talk about their lives, about her difficulties and problems. If the consultant is attentive, the client, "replaces the point at the end of the sentence of the comma, and what seemed to the end of the disclosure, becomes a prelude to a deeper revelation."
In any case, the correct listening is an active process. It covers "all kinds of sensations plus intuition, reflection and empathy." It seems that there is a lot of attention to detail, no matter how insignificant they are. The listener needs to be interested in interest and understanding, but do not interfere with the storytellor to remain in the stream of experiences; The consultant, listening to the client, must be limited and is observed so that the heard recognition generates an abundant associative stream. The emerging associations serve as defined "keys" to understand the problems of the client. But should not be clinging for them, since a part of the associations and ideas has not been confirmed later and discarded. No need to share with your associations with the client, because they can be absolutely erroneous. Associations are rather a guide to further listening, asking questions, encourage the client to "research" new regions of the subjective world. The active hearing of this kind helps to link the individual fragments of the client's narration, as a result of which the main task of consulting is being implemented - the understanding of the client.
Reflexive and non-reflective hearing
There are two styles of conversation, and in its course one can replace the other depending on the context.
Observation -the main empirical method of targeted systematic study of man. The observed does not know that it is observation object.
Observation is implemented using a special technique, which contains a description of the entire observation procedure:
a) the choice of the observation object and the situation in which it will be observed;
b) Program of observations: a list of parties, properties, features of the object that will be recorded;
c) a method for fixing the information received.
When observed, a number of requirements should be observed: the presence of an observation plan, a set of features, indicators that must be fixed and evaluated by the observer; Preferably several expert observers, the estimates of which can be compared, the construction of a hypothesis explaining the observed phenomena, checking the hypothesis in subsequent observations.
Based on the observation, an expert assessment may be given. The results of the observations are recorded in special protocols, identified certain indicators, features that should be identified when observing the behavior of the subjects under the observation plan. Protocol data is subjected to high-quality and quantitative processing.
Observation has several options. External observation is a way to collect data on psychology and human behavior by direct observation of it from the side. Internal surveillance, or self-surveillance, is used when the psychologist-researcher sets itself the task of learning the phenomenon of interest in the form in which it is directly represented in his mind.
Free observation does not have a predetermined framework, programs, procedures for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its character during the very observation depending on the wishes of the observer.
Distinguish the following types of observation: SCREEN (short observation), Longitian (long, sometimes for a number of years), selective and solid and special type - included observation (when the observer becomes a member of the group under study).
The advantages of the method:
1. Wealth of collected information;
2. The naturalness of the conditions of activity is preserved;
3. It is permissible to use a variety of technical means;
4. It is not necessary to obtain prior consent subjects.
disadvantages:
1. Subjectivity;
2. The inability to control the situation;
3. Significant time spent.
Self-surveillance method (introspection).The subject carefully monitors the dynamics of the states experienced by him on each of the execution steps of the instruction. The subject, which has passed special training, describes what he feels, being in one situation or another.
The introspection has two drawbacks:
1. Extreme subjectivity, since each subject describes its own impressions or experiences, which very rarely coincide with the impressions of another subject;
2. The sensations of the same subject change over time.
Psychodiagnostic conversation as a method for obtaining information based on verbal communication.
One of the variety variation is a conversation. Conversation psychological method It provides for the direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the information under study on its activities in which the psychological phenomena peculiar to it are objectified. Types of conversations: collection of anamnesis, interviews, questionnaires and psychological questionnaires.
History ( lat. By memory) - information about the past being studied from him or - with an objective history - from well-known persons. Interviews - the view of the conversation at which the task is to get the responses of the respondent on certain (usually prepared in advance) questions. In this case, when questions and answers are represented in writing, there is a survey.
Advantages and disadvantages of the conversation method.
Content and conversation plan.The conversation is widespread in psychology and in pedagogical practice The empirical method for obtaining information about a person in communicating with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. Answers are recorded either by tape recorder recording or stenograph. The conversation is a subjective psychodiagnostic method, since the teacher or a researcher subjectively assesses the answers, the behavior of the student, while his behavior, fabulous, gestures, affects the student, determining this or that degree of openness and confidence-distrust of the next.
Organization of conversation. There are a number of conversations as a method. The first is ease. It is impossible to turn the conversation question. The greatest result brings a conversation in the event of a personal contact of the researcher with a person surveyed. It is important to carefully consider the conversation, to present it in the form of a specific plan, tasks, problems to be clarified. The conversation method suggests, along with the answers and the formulation of issues by the surveyed. Such a bilateral conversation gives more information on the problem under study than only the answers of the subjects for the questions.
Types of tests and types of tasks in tests. Test (from English - Sample, Testing, Check) - Standardized Methodology for Psychological Measurement and Diagnosing Severity of Mental and Behavioral Properties and Personal States. The test is a standardized, often limited time, a test designed to establish comparable quantitative and high-quality individual-psychological differences.
Under standardization, it is meant that these techniques always and everywhere should be applied the same way, ranging from the situation and instructions obtained by the subject, ending with the methods of calculating and interpreting data. Comparability means that the estimates obtained by the test can be compared with each other regardless of where, when, how and by whom they were obtained. Of course, if the test was applied correctly. In psychodiagnostics there are various classifications of tests.
They can be divided:
According to the features of the test tasks used for tests, verbal and tests are non-verbal (practical);
According to the forms of the examination procedure - group and individual tests;
In the direction: Intelligence tests, Personality tests, tests of special abilities, tests of achievements, Creativity tests;
Depending on the availability or absence of temporary limitations - speed tests and performance tests;
According to the implementation method - blank, manipulative, hardware, computer, situational behavioral;
In psychometric grounds, tests are divided into those based on the scale of individual differences, and criteria-oriented tests;
For the purpose of use, high school readiness tests, clinical tests, trade intake tests and others. - in composition - monometric and complex (test batteries).
Criterial-oriented tests (Cort) are intended to determine the level of individual achievements relative to a certain criterion based on the logical and functional analysis of the content content. As a criterion (or objective reference), specific knowledge, skills, the skills necessary for the successful implementation of a task are usually considered. The criterion is the presence or absence of knowledge. This is the main difference between the court of traditional psychometric tests, the assessment in which is carried out on the basis of the correlation of individual results with group (orientation on the statistical norm). An essential feature of the court is that individual differences are reduced to a minimum (individual differences affect the duration of the assimilation, and not to the final result).
Speed \u200b\u200btests - type of diagnostic techniques in which the main indicator of the productivity of the subjects is the execution time (volume) of test tasks. Typical speed tests usually include a large number of homogeneous tasks (items). The volume of the material is chosen in such a way that for the allotted time (constant for all subjects) none of the surveyed has time to cope with all the tasks. Then the productivity indicator will be the number of correctly performed tasks. Example: Correcting Sample, Intelligence Tests. An indicator of the performance of speed tests may be a direct measurement of the task execution time (Table Shulte).
Performance tests Focused on measuring or stating the result achieved result when performing a test task. The speed of work is not taken into account or has an auxiliary value. A temporary limitation can be applied, but serves the objectives of the standardization of the study or to save time. This is most personal techniques, questionnaires, projective tests, questionnaires.
Verbal tests . In them, the material of test tasks is presented in verbal form. At the same time it is understood that the main content of the work of the subject is operations with concepts, mental actions in verbal logical form. Verbal tests are more often aimed at measuring the ability to understand verbal instructions, operating skills with grammatical linguistic forms, mastering with writing and reading.
Reflective verbal factors of intelligence tests are most closely correlated with criteria for general culture, awareness, academic achievement. The results of verbal tests are very sensitive to differences in the language culture of the subjects, the level of education, professional features. Difficulties is the adaptation of verbal tests to the conditions of examination of the tests of another nationality.
Non-verbal tests (practical). In them, the material of test tasks is represented by non-verbal tasks. Non-verbal tests reduce the effect of language and cultural differences on the results of the survey. The task in non-verbal form also distinguishes the procedure for examining the tests with a violation of speech, hearing, as well as persons who are not educated. Practical tasks were convenient when conducting massive test research.
Blanco tests (Previously, they were called "Pencil and Paper Tests"). Application of forms is distributed in almost all types of test techniques. The test is proposed a special form of examination, brochure, a questionnaire, etc., which contain instructions and examples of solutions, jobs and a form for registering responses.
Dignity: Easy examination technique, lack of need for special hardware. In objective tests, the material of test tasks is represented as real objects: cubes, cards, parts of geometric shapes, structures and components of technical devices, etc. The most famous cubes of the Cosa, test complex figures From the set of a ventilation, test of Vygotsky-Sakharov. Subject tests are mainly carried out individually. Hardware tests require applications special equipment For research and registration of the obtained data.
Used to assess psychophysiological properties, study of the reaction time, typological features nervous system, To explore the peculiarities of perception, memory, thinking. The advantages of hardware tests should include higher accuracy and objectivity of the survey results, the ability to automate the initial data collection. The disadvantages are the high cost of the necessary equipment and the complexity of technical support for the psychodiagnostic laboratory. Most cases, hardware tests are carried out individually.
Computer tests - automated type of testing in the form of the test and computer dialog. Test jobs are presented on the display screen, and the test responses enters from the keyboard; The survey protocol is immediately created as a set of data on a magnetic carrier. Standard statistical packages make it possible to very quickly carry out mathematical and statistical processing of the results obtained by different directions.
If desired, you can get information in the form of graphs, tables, charts, profiles. With the help of a computer, you can get an analysis of such data that is practically impossible without it: the time of execution of the test tasks, the time of receiving the correct answers, the number of failures to solve and circulation for help, the time spent by the subject to think about the response to the resolution; The response time / if it is complicated / etc. These features of the subjects are used for in-depth psychological analysis during testing.
Individual tests - The interaction of the experimenter and the subject occurs one on one.
Benefits: The ability to observe the subject (facial expansion, involuntary reactions), hear and record the expressive statements, fix the functional states.
Used in working with children of infant and preschool age, in clinical psychology - testing of persons with somatic or neuropsychiatric disorders, people with physical disabilities, etc. Requires, as a rule, a long time and high level of qualification of the experimenter. Group tests are allowed to examine a group of subjects simultaneously (up to several hundred people). (This is not a socio-psychological diagnosis.)
Benefits:
Massiness;
Speed \u200b\u200bdata collection;
The instruction and procedure for carrying out enough simple and from the experimenter does not require high qualifications;
More complied with the uniformity of the experimental conditions; - Processing results are usually more objective, often on a computer.
disadvantages:
Restriction of the possibility of observation;
Less than the ability to achieve mutual understanding with the subject, to interest it, enlist the cooperation - not detected diseases, fatigue, anxiety, anxiety can affect the task.
Intelligence tests. Tests of common abilities. Designed to measure the level of intellectual development (mental potential). Intelligence manifestations are diverse, but they are inherent in total, which makes it possible to distinguish them from other behaviors. This general is to activate in any intellectual act of thinking, memory, imagination, all those mental functions that provide the knowledge of the surrounding world. Accordingly, under the intellect as an object of measurement, the features of a person who relate to cognitive properties are understood.
It was reflected in numerous tests to evaluate various intelligent functions (tests logical thinking, semantic and associative memory, arithmetic, spatial visualization, etc.). These tests are clearly separated from other methods for measuring individual-psychological features - personal tests aimed at measuring behavior in certain social situations, interests and emotions of the individual.
In most intelligence tests, the test on a special form is invited to establish the logical relationship of classification, analogies, generalizations and others between the terms and concepts, of which the test tasks are compiled. He reports its solutions either in writing, or noting one of several options available on the form. The success of the subject is determined by the number of correctly performed tasks, the intellectivity coefficient is displayed.
The success of the subject is associated with the fact G. Aizenku ):
As far as in his previous experience, he learned the terms and concepts, of which the tasks of the test were built;
How many mental actions that are needed to solve the test problems are given to them;
And can he arbitrarily update these actions;
As far as the thinking test stereotypes in his past experience are suitable for solving test tasks.
Thus, test results are rather not the mental potential of the subject, but those features of his past experience, training that inevitably affect his work on the test. This circumstance served as the basis for calling the results obtained by the use of tests of intelligence "test" or "psychometric" intelligence.
Tests of special abilities, creativity, personality.
Tests achievements - Evaluation of the achieved level of development of abilities, skills and knowledge. Unlike the tests of intelligence, reflecting the impact of accumulated experience and general abilities, the achievements tests measure the impact of special training programs, professional and other training on the effectiveness of learning such or another complex of knowledge, the formation of various special skills. Thus, tests of achievements are focused on assessing the achievements of a person after completion of training. Tests of achievements used in school psychodiagnostics have noticeable advantages compared with the existing assessment of student performance.
Their indicators are focused on measuring the absorption of key concepts, themes of the curriculum, and not a specific totality of knowledge, as is the case with a traditional school assessment. Tests of achievements Thanks to standardized assessment form, it allows you to relate the level of student achievements on the subject in general and on the individual essential elements with similar indicators in the classroom or in any other sample of the subjects. This assessment is more objective and requires smaller time costs (since there are most often group tests), in which the traditional school assessment.
Enclosed large quantity Topes make the possibility of a unambiguous objective assessment of the student, while the exams of such an assessment do not give. For example, in 1994, gold medals 110 were received from 50,000 graduates in Moscow, and in Novosibirsk from 8,000 - 55 graduates. 1: 4 ratio.
Test creativity - Methods designed to study and evaluate the creative abilities of the personality. Creativity - the ability to produce new ideas, find unconventional ways to solve problem tasks. Creative factors - fluency, clarity, thinking flexibility, sensitivity to problems, originality, ingenuity, constructiveness when solving them, etc. If the solution of creativity tests can be taken as one of the evidence of creative abilities in humans, then not the solution is not yet proof of the absence. Such.
The most famous tests for measuring the cognitive aspect of creativity were developed by Joe Gilford with employees (1959) and a torrent field (1962). In domestic studies based on the allocation of a unit of measurement of creative abilities, named "Intellectual Initiative", developed original technique "Creative field." D.B. Bogoyavlenskaya (1983).
Tests of special abilities - Methods designed to measure the level of development of individual aspects of intelligence and psychomotor functions, mainly ensuring efficiency in specific, sufficient narrow areas of activity. Unlike the tests of intelligence aimed at broad areas of activity, tests of special abilities are aimed at specific areas of activity, others serve as an addition to the tests for intelligence.
Arose with the aim of vocational training and career guidance abroad. In foreign psychodiagnostics, the following abilities are distinguished: sensory, motor, technical (mechanical) and professionalized (countable, musical, reading and understanding speeds read, etc.). Complex batteries of abilities have become the greatest spread abroad.
Advantages and disadvantages of the test method.
Tests consist of a series of tasks with a choice of ready-made response options. When counting points for tests, the selected answers receive an unambiguous quantitative interpretation and are summed up. The total score is compared with quantitative test standards and after this comparison is formulated standard diagnostic conclusions.
The popularity of the test method is explained by the following main advantages (below as comparison is mainly traditional oral and written exams):
1. Standardization of conditions and results. Test methods are relatively independent of user qualifications (performer), on the role of which can be prepared even a laboratory assistant with secondary education. This, however, does not mean that in order to prepare a comprehensive conclusion on the battery of tests, it is not necessary to attract a qualified specialist with full-fledged higher psychological education.
2. efficiency and efficiency. A typical test consists of a series of brief tasks to perform each of which is required, as a rule, not more than half a minute, and the entire test takes up, as a rule, no more than an hour (in school practice it is one lesson); Testing simultaneously subjected immediately a group of subjects, therefore, there is a significant savings (human-hours) for data collection.
3. Quantitative differentiated assessment. The fragmentation of the scale and standardized test allows it to consider it as " measuring tool", Giving a quantitative assessment to the measured properties (knowledge, skills in a given area). In addition, the quantitative nature of test results makes it possible to apply a well-developed psychometrist device in the case of tests, which makes it possible to appreciate how well this test works on this sample under these conditions.
4. Optimal difficulty. A professionally made test consists of the tasks of optimal difficulty. At the same time, the average subject is gaining about 50 percent from the maximum possible number of points. This is achieved by preliminary tests - a psychometric experiment. If during it becomes known that approximately half of the surveyed contingent copes with the task, then such a task is recognized as successful and left in the test.
5. Reliability. This may be the most important advantage of tests. "Lottery" The nature of modern exams with the stretching of "happy" or "unlucky" tickets is known to everyone. The lottery for the examining here turns low reliability for the examiner - the answer to one fragment of the curriculum is usually not indicative for the level of assimilation of the entire material. In contrast, any competently built test covers the main sections of the curriculum (the test area of \u200b\u200bknowledge or manifestations of some skill or ability). As a result, the possibility for "tailors" to be embarrassed into excellent students, and for an excellent party suddenly "fail" sharply decrease.
6. The most important social consequence of the advantages listed above is justice. It should be understood as security from the bias of the examiner. Good test puts all the subjects under equal conditions.
7. Possibility of computerization. In this case, it is not just an additional convenience that reduces the living labor of qualified performers with a mass survey. As a result of computerization, all test parameters increase. It is possible to provide information security. It is possible to create a "bank test tasks", which allows technically preventing abuse from unscrupulous examiners. The choice of tasks offered to a specific subject can produce a computer program itself from such a bank directly during testing, and presenting this subject a certain task in this case is the same surprise for the examiner as for the subject.
8. Psychological adequacy. This is the most important psychological consequence of optimal complexity. The presence in the test (compared to the traditional examination options) of a larger number of summoned tasks of the average difficulty gives many subjects (especially anxious, not confident) chance to believe in itself, intensify psychologically optimal installation "Overcoming". When such a test remains face to face in front of one - two very complex and big tasks and does not see how you can cope with them in general, he falls in spirit and does not reveal all its capabilities.
And if the tasks are much and some of them clearly begins to "succumb to" (the test is confident that he cope with them), a person in testing is encouraged and begins to "deal" maximum result. The optimal complexity property not only provides the measuring (distinguishing) power force, but also provides optimal psychological attitudes of the subjects. The test situation of optimal complexity is the optimal pathogen - people experience a normal level of stress (voltage) necessary in order to show the highest result. The lack of stress (in the event of a light dough), and even more so excess (in the case of difficult) distort the measurement results.
Disadvantages of testing:
1. Danger of "blind", automatic errors. Sleeping faith of unskilled performers, that the test must work correctly automatically, sometimes generates errors and incidents: the subject did not understand the instructions and began to answer at all as they require the standards of instructions, the test for some reason applied the distorting tactics, the "shift" appeared in the application Stencils-key to the answer form (with a manual, non-computers counting points), etc.
2. Danger of profanation. The external ease of testing attracts people who do not want to seriously get acquainted with psychodiagnostics.
3. Loss of an individual approach, "stressfulness". The test is designed for everyone. It is quite likely to miss the unique individuality of a non-standard person (especially a child). This felt the tests themselves, and it is nervous - especially in a situation of certification testing, even a certain violation of self-regulation occurs in people with reduced stress resistance - they begin to worry and make mistakes in elementary issues.
4. Loss of an individual approach, "Reproductiveness". Knowledge tests are designed to identify ready-made, standard knowledge. Most tests are not directed to creative, constructive activities.
5. No trust. The testing procedure can create the impression from the subject that the psychologist is little interested in it personally, in his problems and difficulties. Dialogical methods in this regard have an undoubted advantage.
6. Inadequate complexity. Sometimes unqualified "testologists" fell on the child tests too complicated for him by age. He has not yet developed the necessary concepts and conceptual skills to adequately comprehend as general instructions Test and the meaning of individual questions.
Tests can not be done by the only exhaustive method of any diagnostics, they require parallel use of other diagnostic methods. The best guarantee from profan and profanation is a serious and qualified interest in what experimental scientific work did the test developers, as fully, this work and its results are reflected in the concomitant documentation. This is, above all, issues of reliability, validity and representativeness.
Questionnings as standardized self-report.
Questionnaires are large group Methods whose tasks are presented in the form of questions or allegations, and the task of the subject is an independent message of some information about yourself in the form of answers. Theoretical basis This method can be considered introspectionism - the psychology of self-surveillance. The opposite method was first considered as a kind of self-surveillance. But with the specified responses, this is a self-surveillance, which is attached to a standardized nature, in many formal features it is closer to objective testing.
The research tool by which the surveyed receive answers to many written issues. A group of psychodiagnostic techniques in which tasks are presented in the form of questions and allegations. Designed to obtain data from the words of the surveyed (standardized self-report).
Types of questionnaires.
The survey is a method when using which a person responds to a number of questions asked him. The oral survey is applied in cases where it is desirable to monitor behavior and reactions of a person responsible for questions. This type of survey allows deeper than a written, no longer in a person's psychology, but requires a special training, training and, as a rule, high time spent on research. The responses of the subjects obtained with oral surveys are significantly dependent on the personality of the person who conducts a survey, and from the individual characteristics of the one who answers questions and from the behavior of both persons in the survey situation.
The written survey allows you to cover a greater number of people. The most common form is a questionnaire. But her fear is that, applying a questionnaire, it is impossible to pre-take into account the reaction that responds to the content of its questions and, based on this, change them. Free poll is a type of oral or written op-dew, in which the list of asked questions and possible from-ves on them is not limited to a certain framework. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly change the tactics of research, the content of the questions asked, to receive non-precious dart answers on them.
Personal questionnaires.
Standardized questionnaires, with which the degree of severity of the personal features of the subject or other features of the personality is definitely also quantified. As a rule, in personal questionnaires there is no "right" and "incorrect" answers. They only reflect the measure of consent or disagreement of the subject with one or another statement. By the nature of the answers to the questions, they are divided into questionnaires with prescribed answers (closed questionnaires) and with free answers (open sources).
In closed questionnaires, there are options for answers to the assigned question. The subject must choose one of them. The most common is a two- or three-alternative choice of response (for example: "Yes, no"; "Yes, no, I find it difficult to answer"). The advantage of closed issues is the simplicity of the procedure for registration and data processing, clear formalization of estimation, which is important with a mass examination. At the same time, this form of the answer "coarses" information. Often, the subjects have difficulty when it is necessary to take a categorical solution.
Open questionnaires provide free answers without any special limitations. The subjects give answers at their discretion. Standardization of processing is achieved by assigning arbitrary answers to standard categories. Advantages: Getting detailed information about the subject; Conduct a qualitative analysis of answers. Disadvantages: the complexity of the formalization of responses and their estimates; difficulties in interpretation of results; The bulky of the procedure and high time spent.
Questionnaires feathers - A group of personal questionnaires developed based on the allocation of personality traits. Directly observed features of personality act as the source material for building questionnaires. In contrast to the design of typological questionnaires, this approach requires grouping personal signs, and the unnecessary. In the questionnaires, the diagnosis of the diagnosis is carried out gradually severity features. Example: (16 personal factors) - Qattella questionnaire, UK.
Typological questionnaires - A group of personal questionnaires developed on the basis of the allocation of personality types as holistic formations that do not agree to the set of features (or factors). This approach requires a grouping of the subjects themselves, and not their personal signs. In typological questionnaires, the diagnosis is carried out on the basis of comparison with the corresponding / averaged / identity type. Example: Aizenka, MMPI.
Qunes Motiv - A group of personal questionnaires intended for the diagnosis of the motivational and needs personality sphere, which makes it possible to establish a person's activity (motives as causes determining the choice of behavior orientation) and how to regulate the dynamics of behavior.
Questionnaires of interest - A group of questionnaires intended for measuring interests and the choice of professional activity questionnaires of interest, depending on the saturation of personal indicators, can be attributed to both personal questionnaires and questionnaires-questionnaires.
Questionnaires of values - a group of personal questionnaires intended for measuring values \u200b\u200band value orientations Personality. Values \u200b\u200bare formed in the process of assimilation of social experience and are found in the interests, installations and other manifestations of the person.
Questionnaires Installations - A group of questionnaires intended for measuring the relative orientation of a person in a one-dimensional continuum of installations.
Questionnaires biographical - Group of questionnaire questionnaires to obtain data on human life history. Most often, issues relate to age, health, family, level and nature of education, special skills, promotion and others relative to objective indicators. They help collect information needed to reliable interpretation of test indicators.
Forms of questions: open and closed (dichotomous and alternative). Forms of representation of results. Ways to increase the reliability of questionnaires (multiple duplication of issues, the introduction of the "Lie Scale", the refusal of direct issues, etc.).
Specificity of a survey. Questioning is an empirical method for obtaining information on the basis of answers to specially prepared issues that make up the questionnaire. Preparation of the questionnaire requires professionalism. Questioning can be oral, written, individual, group. The material of the survey is subjected to quantitative and high-quality processing.
Questionnaires - Questionnaires serve to obtain any information about a person who is not directly related to his psychological and personal features. They suggest a rigidly fixed order, content and form of issues, a clear indication of the form of answers. Surveys are classified on the content and design of questions (open, closed, semi-open). The respondent is a person responsible for questionnaires or interviews.
Interviewing features. Interviews - the view of the conversation at which the task is to get the responses of the respondent on certain (usually prepared in advance) questions.
As a result of studying this chapter, students will be:
know
- Essence and types of conversation as a method of scientific psychological research, its possibilities and restrictions;
- the ratio of observation and conversation methods, the advantages of the conversation as a scientific method;
- The main stages and principles of the organization of the conversation as a scientific method in psychology;
be able to
- develop a conversation program;
- define the overall strategy and tactics of talking conversation in order to collect new scientific data in psychology;
own
Skills of conducting and analyzing the protocol of the conversation.
General characteristics and types of conversation (interview) in a psychological study
The conversation is one of the main scientific methods In social spiders in general and psychology in particular. In general, the conversation can be defined as a data collection method, as well as a method of impact based on the use of verbal communication. The conversation is applied in all without exception the areas of the psychologist: in psychotherapy and psychocorrection, psychodiagnostics, in research activities, etc.
In this chapter, we will consider a conversation only as a tool for conducting psychological research, leaving outside the discussion on the discussion of its use in psychotherapeutic and psychocorrection work. An important difference here is that in the psychotherapeutic work of one of the main objectives of using the conversation is the impact on the interlocutor, resulting in changing the latter. In the research activities, the conversation is considered exclusively as a method for obtaining data, which does not imply impose effects.
The conversation method is a very multidimensional and implemented using a large number of different ways. This method is used to obtain both qualitative and quantitative data, depending on which it is used both in the study of isolated cases or small samples and in the study of a large number of subjects. In addition, the conversation takes different forms Depending on how, who and when asks questions, how answers receive answers and which questions are set.
In general, research methods that can be considered as modifications of the conversation method can be divided into two main tites - interviews (from English, interview) and polls (in English literature used term survey). This division is due to the type of data that is obtained as a result of their application, and the characteristics of the study of the study.
Polls Usually used for research on large samples of the subjects and aims to collect mainly quantitative information. Polls can be conducted using personal or telephone interviews, as well as in writing in the form of correspondence surveys or questionnaires (when the respondent must write in writing to the questions formulated in advance, and the direct interaction of the researcher and the respondent is not implied). When conducting surveys on large samples, the interpersonal interaction between the researcher and the respondent plays a not such a significant role, while much attention is paid to the unification of the survey procedure for all respondents.
In psychology, preference is given to the methods of high-quality interviews, while polls are the main tools of other social sciences (sociology, political science, etc.), although also apply in socio-psychological research. Depending on the specifics of the problem under study, as well as the objectives and objectives of the study, preference can be given various types conversations.
The focus of this chapter is the high-quality personal interview, and in the future we will use the term "conversation" and "interview" as synonyms. Although the general ideas related to the features of the interviews are set out here are mainly applicable to surveys, they also have some features that will not be discussed in this manual. For their
studies send you to the appropriate literature for example, to the works of M. V. Melnikova, M. Breslava, V. A. Yadova, etc.
So, we will consider a conversation as a dialogue between people, allowing one person to find out psychological features, opinions, autobiographical information, etc. Another person based on the exchange of verbal messages.
The use of the conversation method allows you to get a huge number of diverse information, which often cannot be obtained by using other methods. Where observation and experiment can provide only indirect information about the researcher who is interested in the researcher, the conversation may be the most direct way to receive data: you simply ask a person about everything that interests you. The conversation is especially indispensable in cases where other methods cannot be applied in principle. For example, if you are interested in the content of dreams or subjective states of a person who do not find reflections in his behavior, you will not be able to use any other research approach to this.
The conversation is the only method that allows you to directly obtain information about the thoughts, opinions, preferences and point of view of the respondent, as well as such phenomenological information, as its idea of \u200b\u200bitself and the surrounding environment. Conversation is convenient for mental experiments When you offer a subject to simulate some kind of situation and find out how he would act and felt at the same time. Thus, the conversation is a universal study method with a very wide range of applications.
Given all the advantages and disadvantages of this method, it is necessary to clearly understand, in what situations it should be, and in which one should not be used, and in what cases it can be trusted with it, and in which it is impossible.
By virtue of its high nonspecificness, the conversation method, as well as the observation method, can be used at different stages of the research process and in different qualities:
- It can be used to carry out a primary study of any problems that will help in general understand how to approach further to its study (introductory interviews);
- It may be the main and only research method (when all information collected in the study is based only on interviews);
- It usually, along with observation, is used as an integral part for field research (when they are studied, for example, the features of any social groups);
- It can also be used as a method for measuring the dependent variable during experiments.
In addition, conversations are carried out at the first stage of the design of psychodiagnostic questionnaires. They are also used in post-excemental surveys, allowing to clarify the thoughts and feelings that have arisen from the experiment under the experiment and find out possible guidelines for the hypotheses checked in the experiment.
The use of the conversation method, despite its versatility, in some cases it may be unnecessary. For example, when it is assumed in a short time to study a large number of subjects or if more reliable data can be obtained using other methods (for example, observations). It is also not recommended to carry out a conversation when there are suspicions that the information received from respondents can be intentionally or unintended by them distorted, and also if the tests for definition cannot give self-defense of the researcher issues (for example, when studying children, people with psychopathology or etc.).
Conducting a conversation may at first glance seem very similar to the usual conversation, but in reality the interview differs from the conversation on a number of important parameters.
First of all, from the point of view of the existence. In the usual conversation, the goal, as a rule, is not explicated explicitly, they can be guessed in the course of communication, sometimes conversations may not have the goals more specific than "communicating". In the course of the conversation, the widest range of topics may be affected, while themes can be born and appear in the conversation process. Topics for conversation are usually not planned in advance and are not moderated in the process of communication. When interviewed, the goal is thought out and formulated in advance and explicitly declared the respondent. In general, the purpose of the interview is to receive information from the respondent. Topics, information on which is interested in interviewating, are also formulated in advance.
In an interview, in contrast to the conversation, the roles are more clearly distributed among the participants. In a research interview, the interviewing occupies a more active position, it is he asks questions and manages the course of the conversation. The interviewee must answer questions, and they can only ask them at a special interviewing invitation (for example, it is often proposed to do at the end of the interview). In the usual conversation, both participants can ask questions, respond to them, change the topics of communication. When conducting a conversation, the respondent says much more than the interviewer, while in the usual conversation it is clearly not regulated.
Regarding how communication itself is built, the conversation is also very different from the simple conversation. So, usually very short responses are used in a simple conversation, and the whole conversation is based on the well-known implicit knowledge, which is not pronounced explicitly. At the same time, in an interview, on the contrary, the answers must be as deployed as possible, and all implied information should explicitly explicitly so that it can really be understood and analyzed by other people.
In addition, there is usually no repetition in a conversation: the topic discussed at some point is no longer pronounced additionally. In an interview, repeats are used as special techniques for checking the reliability of responses, the sincerity of the respondent, as well as clarifying additional information. Often the same question may be formulated different ways and set in different parts of the interview, and this can lead to the detection of illogy in the respondent's responses either to clarify the new information that has not yet expressed.
- Melnikova M. V. Poll method // Experimental psychology: workshop / ed. V. S. Smirnova, T. V. Kornilova. M.: Aspect Press. 2002. P. 331-343.
- Cm.: Breslav G. M. Fundamentals of psychological research.
- Cm.: Poisons V. L. Strategy of sociological research. Description, explanation, understanding of social reality.