The development of sensation and perception in preschool age. Development of sensations in children
The sense organs of children at the beginning of preschool age are similar in structure and some features of their functioning to the sense organs of adults. At the same time, it is in preschool age that children's sensations and perceptions develop, and the most important qualities of their sensing are formed. The development of certain types of sensations (including visual acuity) is determined by the fact that they are included in the solution of more and more new problems, for which a more subtle distinction between individual signs and properties of objects is required. In this regard, the motives and conditions for the implementation of different types of activity acquire a decisive importance for the effectiveness of various sensations.
Preschool age (from 3 to 7 years) is a direct continuation of early age in terms of general sensitivity, carried out by the irrepressibility of the ontogenetic potential for development. This is the period of mastering the social space of human relations through communication with close adults, as well as through play and real relationships with peers.
Preschool age brings the child new fundamental achievements. In preschool age, a child, mastering the world of permanent things, mastering the use of an increasing number of objects according to their functional purpose and experiencing a value attitude towards the surrounding objective world, with amazement discovers a certain relativity of the constancy of things. At the same time, he understands for himself the dual nature of the man-made world created by human culture: the constancy of the functional purpose of a thing and the relativity of this constancy. In the ups and downs of relationships with adults and with peers, the child gradually learns subtle reflection on another person. During this period, through a relationship with an adult, the ability to identify with people, as well as with fairy-tale and imaginary characters, with natural sites, toys, pictures, etc.
At the same time, the child discovers for himself the positive and negative forces of isolation, which he will have to master at a later age. Feeling the need for love and approval, realizing this need and dependence on it, the child learns the accepted positive forms of communication that are appropriate in relationships with people around him. He advances in the development of verbal communication and communication through expressive movements, actions reflecting emotional disposition and a willingness to build positive relationships.
In preschool age, active mastery of one's own body continues (coordination of movements and actions, the formation of an image of the body and value attitudes towards it). During this period, the child begins to acquire an interest in the human body structure, including sex differences, which contributes to the development of sexual identification.
Physical activity, coordination of movements and actions, in addition to general physical activity, is devoted to the child and the development of specific movements and actions related to gender. During this period, speech, the ability to substitute, to symbolic actions and the use of signs, visual-effective and visual-figurative thinking, imagination and memory continue to develop rapidly. The emerging irrepressible, natural for this period of ontogenesis, the desire to master the body, mental functions and socially interacting with other people brings the child a sense of overflow and joy in life. At the same time, the child feels the need to retain the mastered actions through their tireless reproduction. During these periods, the child categorically refuses to appropriate new things (listen to new fairy tales, master new methods of action, etc.), he enthusiastically reproduces the known. The entire period of childhood from three to seven years, this tendency of early human ontogenesis is observed: the irrepressible, rapid development of mental properties, interrupted by pronounced stops - periods of stereotypical reproduction of what has been achieved. At the age of three to seven years, the child's self-awareness develops so much that it gives rise to talk about the child's personality. [5, p. 200].
Sensory education is based on knowledge of the general course of development of sensations in preschool age and on knowledge of the conditions on which this development depends. How is the development of sensations in preschool children going?
Development of visual sensations. The main changes in the visual sensations of preschool children occur in the development of visual acuity (that is, the ability to distinguish between small or distant objects) and in the development of dullness in distinguishing shades of color.
It is often thought that the smaller the child, the better, the sharper his eyesight. In fact, this is not entirely true. The study of visual acuity in children 4-7 years old shows that visual acuity in younger preschoolers is lower than that of older preschoolers. So, when measuring the greatest distance from which children of different ages are able to distinguish figures shown to them of the same size, it turned out that for children 4-5 years old this distance is equal (in average figures) 2 m 10 cm, for children 5-6 years 2 m 70 cm, and for children 6 - 7 years old 3 m.
On the other hand, according to the research data, visual acuity in children can sharply increase under the influence of the correct organization of exercises in distinguishing distant objects. So, in younger preschool children, it rises rapidly, on average by 15 - 20%, and in older preschool age - by 30%.
What is the main condition for the successful education of visual acuity? This condition consists in the fact that the child is given such an understandable and interesting task for him, which requires him to distinguish one from another objects that are distant from him.
Similar tasks can be given in the form of a game, which, for example, requires the child to show in which of several identical boxes on the shelf a picture or toy is hidden (this box is marked with a figurine icon slightly different from those pasted on other boxes, which is known to the player in advance). At first, children only vaguely “guess” it among others, and after several repetitions of the game, they already clearly, consciously distinguish the icon depicted on it.
Thus, the active development of the ability to distinguish between distant objects should take place in the process of one or another specific and meaningful activity for the child, and by no means through formal "training". Formal "training" of visual acuity not only does not improve it, but in some cases can even bring direct harm - if at the same time overextend the child's vision or allow him to examine an object in conditions of very weak, too strong or uneven, flickering lighting. In particular, you should avoid allowing children to look at very small objects that have to be held close to their eyes.
In preschool children, visual impairments sometimes go unnoticed. Therefore, the child's behavior, which is explained by the fact that he sees poorly, can be interpreted incorrectly and suggest incorrect pedagogical conclusions. For example, instead of putting a nearsighted toddler closer to the picture book in question, the teacher, not knowing about his myopia, tries in vain to draw his attention to the details of the picture that he does not see. That is why it is always useful for the educator to be interested in medical data on the state of vision of children, as well as to check their visual acuity himself.
In preschool age, children significantly develop accuracy in distinguishing shades of color. Although by the beginning of preschool age, most children can accurately distinguish the main colors of the spectrum, the distinction between similar shades in preschoolers is still not perfect enough. Experiments that require a child to choose the same shade for the displayed shade show that the number of mistakes that children at the age of 4-7 make during this process is rapidly decreasing: if for four-year-olds the number of mistakes is still very high and reaches 70%, then for children 5-6 years of age, errors are usually no more than 50%, and by 7 years - less than 10%.
If a child constantly encounters colored materials in his activity and he has to accurately distinguish shades, select them, make up colors, etc., then, as a rule, his color discriminative sensitivity reaches a high level of development. An important role in this is played by the performance of such works by children as laying out colored patterns, appliqué works from natural colored materials, painting with paints, etc.
It should be borne in mind that in some, albeit quite rare, cases, children have color vision disorders. The child does not see shades of red or shades Green colour and mixes them together. In other, even rarer cases, some shades of yellow and blue are poorly distinguished. Finally, there are also cases of complete “color blindness”, when only differences in lightness are felt, but the colors themselves are not felt at all. The study of color vision requires the use of special tables and must be carried out by specialists.
Development of auditory sensations. Auditory sensations, like visual sensations, are especially important in the mental development of a child. Hearing is essential for the development of speech. If the child's hearing sensitivity is impaired or severely reduced, then speech cannot develop normally. Auditory sensitivity, formed in early childhood, continues to develop in preschool children.
Distinguishing the sounds of speech is improved in the process of verbal communication. Differentiation of musical sounds improves with music lessons. Thus, the development of hearing is highly dependent on education.
The peculiarity of the auditory sensitivity in children is that it is characterized by large individual differences. Some preschoolers have a very high auditory sensitivity, while others, on the contrary, have a sharply reduced hearing.
The presence of large individual fluctuations in the sensitivity to distinguishing the frequency of sounds sometimes leads to an incorrect assumption that the auditory sensitivity supposedly depends only on innate inclinations and does not change significantly during the development of the child. In fact, hearing improves with age. Hearing sensitivity increases in children aged 6 to 8, on average, almost twofold.
It was found that the sensitivity to distinguishing the pitch of sounds develops especially rapidly during systematic music lessons.
The sensitivity to distinguishing the pitch of sounds can be sharply increased also by means of special exercises. As for the development of all other sensations, these exercises, however, should not consist of a simple "training", but must be carried out in such a way that the child actively solves the problem - to notice the difference in the pitch of the sounds being compared - and so that he always knows, whether he gave the correct answer. This kind of exercise can be done with preschool children in the form didactic game, organized according to the type of famous games "with correct guessing".
In pedagogical work with preschool children, special attention should be paid to whether the child hears well. This is necessary because in children, a decrease in auditory sensitivity is not always noticed by others due to the fact that the child, poorly, not clearly and not fully hearing the speech addressed to him, but often guesses correctly about what was said by the expression of the speaker's face, by the movement of the lips and, finally , according to the prevailing situation in which they refer to him. With such a "half hearing", the mental development of the child, especially his speech development may be delayed. Phenomena such as slurred speech, seeming absent-mindedness and incomprehensibility are often explained by the child's lowered hearing. The state of hearing of children should be especially carefully monitored, since its deficiencies are observed more often than the deficiencies of other sensations.
Knowing that the child's hearing is not sufficiently developed, the educator must take care, first, to provide him with the most favorable conditions for hearing perception, that is, to make sure that the child sits closer to the speaker or reader; speaking with him, you need to pronounce the words more clearly, and when it is necessary, calmly repeat what was said again. Secondly, one should educate his hearing, make him practice listening. To do this, it is useful to introduce such meaningful activities and games that require the child to listen carefully to quiet sounds and which do not allow replacing hearing with vision or guesswork.
In addition to music lessons and games, as we have already said, the organization of the correct "auditory regime" in the group plays an important role in the culture of hearing. It is necessary that in the group of children studying or playing there is no constant noise and screaming, which not only tire children very much, but are extremely unfavorable for the education of their hearing. In an overly noisy group, the child does not listen to others, hears himself poorly, gets used to responding only to very loud sounds, he starts talking too loudly. Sometimes the teacher is to blame for this, who learns the manner of speaking with children in a loud voice, and when it becomes too noisy in the group, he tries to “shout down” the children.
Of course, it is ridiculous to demand from preschoolers that they always behave quietly: - a child is characterized by violent expressions of his delight and noisy games. But children can be taught to observe silence, speak in an undertone, listen attentively to the faint sounds surrounding them. This is the most important condition for fostering a culture of hearing in children.
Development of motor (joint-muscle) and skin sensations. As already mentioned, the sensations arising from the action of muscle stimuli on the motor analyzer not only play a decisive role in the performance of movements, but also participate, along with skin sensations, in various processes of reflection of the external world, in the formation of correct ideas about its properties. Therefore, nurturing these sensations is also important.
Observations on children's assessments of the weight of the compared weights (which capsule is heavier?), Which depend on the accuracy of the joint-muscle and partly skin sensations, showed that in preschool age (4-6 years) they decrease by more than two times (on average from 1/15 to 1/35 of the compared weight), i.e., that the discriminative sensitivity at this age increases sharply.
During these years, children also experienced a great qualitative shift in the development of joint-muscular sensations. So, if children about 4 years old are given for comparison two boxes, equal in weight, but different in size, and asked which one is heavier, then in most cases the kids evaluate them as equally heavy. At the age of 5-6 years, the assessment of the weight of such boxes changes dramatically: now children, as a rule, confidently point to a smaller box as a heavier one (although the boxes are objectively equal in weight). Children have already begun to consider the relative weight of an object, as adults usually do.
As a result of practical actions with various objects in a child, temporary connections are established between the visual and motor analyzers, between visual stimuli, signaling the size of the object, and articular-muscular, signaling its weight.
The preschool years are a period when a child's senses continue to develop rapidly. The degree of development at this age of certain sensations is directly dependent on the child's activity, in the process of which they are improved, therefore, is determined by upbringing.
At the same time, the high development of sensations is a prerequisite for full-fledged mental development. Therefore, the education of sensations in children (the so-called "sensory education"), properly delivered in preschool age, is of paramount importance, and proper attention should be paid to this aspect of educational work.
Cognitive features
Period late adulthood is often called gerontogenesis, or a period of aging. Most researchers believe that this time in a person's life begins with 60 years. Some authors believe that in women this period begins with 55, and in men with 60 years. People who have reached this age are divided into three subgroups: people old age, old age and centenarians.
However, this age classification of people who have reached the age of late adulthood is not the only one.
Cognitive mental processes - mental processes associated with the perception and processing of information. These include: sensations, perceptions, representations, memory, imagination, thinking, speech.
Gerontogenesis- one of the age periods in a person's life is the aging period, which begins after 60 years.
Age specifics
Main feature this age is the aging process, which is a genetically programmed process accompanied by certain age-related changes in the body.
Development of sensation and perception
The aging process affects and nervous system person. First of all, there is a decrease in its sensitivity, which causes a slowdown in the body's response to external influences and changes in the sensitivity of various sensory organs. Most people in the process of aging suddenly find that it takes them significantly longer than before in order to receive this or that information). From their receptors. (Knower & Plude, 1980
Sensory system- a set of physiological and mental mechanisms that provide sensory information about the surrounding objects and phenomena of reality.
Change in hearing sensitivity
Most often, the results of the aging process are found in a change in a person's auditory sensitivity. The available experimental data indicate that hearing loss is clearly observed in one third of older people, and especially in men (Fozard, 1990). Typically, these hearing losses are mild to moderate and involve a decrease in the person's ability to distinguish between noises of voices or other sounds.
In addition, in the process of aging, a person's auditory sensitivity to high tones deteriorates, which directly affects the perception of individual speech sounds. For example, such as "s", "w", "h" and "f".
Hearing aids are used by older adults in late adulthood to regain their hearing sensitivity, and sometimes they do help them cope with problems. However, most often the desired effect is not achieved, because the device amplifies the sounds of the entire auditory frequency range, which means, along with speech sounds, all noises. This does not help much when you need to parse someone's words in a speech stream.
Some older adults with hearing impairments may appear inattentive or dysfunctional, but in reality they simply cannot understand what is being said. Others, due to their poor hearing, become withdrawn or suspicious.
Visual impairment
People who have reached late adulthood can experience a variety of visual impairments. For example, a decrease in the ability to focus gaze on objects, which is probably due to the loss of elasticity of the lens. In addition, changes in the structure of the lens can lead to its clouding, and then to cataract.
Probably because of the difficulty in focusing, people who have reached late adulthood are often problematic with bright light. Unlike young people, it is difficult for them to perceive sharp contrasts and consider small details. Currently, individual vision problems can be solved by medicine. For example, cataract removal has become a common and widespread operation. However, most of the problems associated with aging are still beyond the control of modern medicine. So, the loss of elasticity of the lens is practically not treated.
Another manifestation of senile changes in older people is a decrease in visual acuity- it becomes difficult for them to distinguish between small details. This can partly be explained by the loss of elasticity of the lens, and partly by the death of the retinal receptors. In most cases, the change in this characteristic of vision is quite successfully compensated with the help of glasses, including bifocal and trifocal glasses.
Another sign of age-related changes in vision is that many older people it is difficult to ignore irrelevant irritants. For example, with age, it becomes more difficult to spot a particular road sign among many others. This problem is compensated by the redundancy of information in the form of characters repeated several times. Standardizing the placement and format of signs also helps older people detect the visual cues they want (Alien et al., 1992).
Memory changes
Memory- the processes of organizing and preserving past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activities or return to the sphere of consciousness.
Sensory (ultra-short-term) memory- a hypothetical memory subsystem that ensures the retention for a very short time (usually less than one second) of the products of sensory processing of information entering the sense organs.
Primary (working) memory- memory that provides the performance of the operational task. Most often this concept is found in foreign literature. In the domestic literature, this type of memory is usually called random access memory.
Secondary (long-term) memory- memory that provides storage and the ability to reproduce information for a long time.
Among all the problems of cognitive decline in the elderly caused by aging, the changes in memory functions have been most thoroughly studied. Moreover, most researchers study not only memory as a whole as a single mental process, but also the varieties of its manifestation.
Thus, foreign researchers who take the positions of the information approach most often talk about sensory, primary, secondary and tertiary memory.
Sensory memory in their opinion, it is a very short-term visual or auditory memory. It is able to hold the incoming sensory information for a short period of time - about 250 milliseconds, before starting to process it. Some authors call this type of memory super short-term memory.
Primary memory characterized by foreign researchers as a repository with a limited amount of information. It contains only that which the person has at the moment “in his thoughts”, for example, the value of the goods that the person is going to buy just seen on the price tag. Therefore it is called working memory. So primary memory probably has the same meaning as RAM in Russian psychology, since it ensures the implementation of a situational task.
It should be noted that in most studies on age-related changes in primary memory, no significant differences were found between the primary memory of young and elderly people. Therefore, it is generally accepted that aging does not affect the functions of primary memory.
Secondary memory is more long-term kind of memory. Compared to sensory and primary memory in secondary memory, as shown by numerous studies, there are obvious age differences. According to studies of the processes of memorization and reproduction, older people often memorize fewer words from
The preservation of the memory functions of the elderly largely depends on the characteristics of the activity they are engaged in.
Thus, older people better remember what is important to them or can be useful in life. This is probably what allows them to keep their skills and abilities in good shape (Lerner, 1990). In addition, older people are usually better at completing tasks if they have received detailed instructions according to the method of organizing the memorized material and had the opportunity to practice (Roop, 1985).
However, age still makes itself felt. So, even after training, people over 70 in the process of various experiments do not always manage to achieve the same results as young people. For example, in a study by Kleigl, Smith, & es. v 1990 , before the control measurement of memory functions, training was carried out for both the elderly and young adults. As a result, training has only widened the gap in outcomes between age samples, because training gives young people more than older people.
Older people are better at remembering what is important to them or may be useful in life.
Tertiary memory- memory for distant events, for example, in older people it can be memories of events from childhood or early adolescence.
Mechanical sealing- a type of memorization, which consists in repeated repetition of the material before memorizing it from beginning to end, without using special techniques and algorithms for simplified or accelerated memorization. Logical or verbal-logical memory - memorization and reproduction of thoughts.
Figurative memory- memory for ideas, pictures of nature and life, as well as sounds, smells, tastes, etc.
Semantic memory- memory for thoughts, including the meaning of the information received.
Consequently, the reserve opportunities for development in older people are significantly less than in young adults, at least with regard to certain skills. Therefore, it is fair to assume that older people have fewer opportunities for improvement (Baltes, 1993).
Tertiary memory is a memory for distant events. The currently available experimental data suggest that this type of memory in older people, most likely, is preserved almost completely. Moreover, a number of studies indicate that older people are better at recalling the details of historical events than younger people. This is especially true for events in which the elderly were directly involved.
According to the results of studies of domestic psychologists observing changes in age-related memory functions, it is known that with age, the elderly begin to deteriorate mechanical sealing, a logical memory persists. Figurative memory weakens more than semantic, but at the same time, memorization is still better preserved when images associated with meaning are memorized than when they do not carry a semantic load. Thus, the basis of memory in old age is a logical connection, and since logical memory is closely related to thinking, it can be assumed that the thinking of older people is highly developed.
Development of thinking
Modern foreign researchers pay a lot of attention to studying the peculiarities of thinking in elderly people. Today, most researchers do not doubt the fact that, despite the superiority of memory, young people lose to the elderly in certain areas of thinking, especially in such an aspect as wisdom. What is wisdom?
Wisdom
Wisdom
Expert knowledge associated with wisdom, according to foreign researchers, can be divided into 5 categories: factual knowledge, procedural knowledge, contextual (related to events in personal life and historical changes), knowledge of the relativity of life values and knowledge of the unpredictable variability of life (see diagram).
Most researchers agree that wisdom is a cognitive property of a person, which is based on crystallized, culturally conditioned intelligence and which, in all likelihood, is associated with the experience and personality of the person.
Several researchers, including Paul B. Baltes and colleagues (Baltes et al., 1993), have devoted a lot of time to studying the problems of wisdom formation in order to understand what constitutes wisdom as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Based on theoretical and experimental studies, it can be assumed that human wisdom has a number of cognitive properties.
At first, wisdom is mainly associated with the decision of important and difficult issues, which most often relate to the meaning of life and the state of specific people.
Secondly, the level of knowledge, judgment and advice reflected in wisdom is exceptionally high.
Thirdly, knowledge associated with wisdom is unusually broad, deep and balanced and can be applied in special situations.
Fourth, wisdom combines intelligence and virtue and is used both for personal well-being and for the benefit of humanity.
factual knowledge / procedural knowledge
Factual knowledge
about the practical side of life
Procedural knowledge
practical side of life
Wisdom is an expert system of human knowledge, focused on the practical side of life and allowing to make a balanced judgment and give useful tips on vital issues.
Wisdom- This is a cognitive property of a person, which is based on crystallized, culturally conditioned intelligence and which, in all likelihood, is associated with the experience and personality of a person.
Fifth, although it is not easy to attain wisdom, most people recognize it without difficulty.
Dementia
Dementia- a whole complex of disorders, including cognitive defects, progressive amnesia and personality changes associated with the onset of old age.
Seniledementia- an organic brain disease that affects the adequacy of a person's thinking.
According to most researchers of psychological problems of late adulthood, among the reasons for a decrease in a person's intellectual characteristics, the leading place is taken by dementia- acquired dementia. This term denotes a whole complex of disorders, including cognitive defects, progressive amnesia and personality changes associated with the onset of old age.
First of all, it should be noted that dementia is not inevitable. So, senile dementia attributed to the category of organic brain diseases, affects only 3-4% of people older 65 years old. Unfortunately, as a person ages, the risk of developing this disease increases. For example, research by American scientists suggests that among people aged from 75 to 84 years, living in nursing homes, approximately 20% suffer from Alzheimer's disease, a form of dementia. After 85 years the incidence of senile dementia among residents of boarding schools and nursing homes reaches 47% (Evans et al., 1989).
People with senile dementia have a limited ability to understand abstractions. They lack imagination. They can repeat the same thing endlessly, think much slower and are not able to pay due attention to what is happening around them. Sometimes they don't remember recent events well. For example, a person with dementia can clearly remember the events of their childhood, but cannot remember what happened an hour ago. Because of these symptoms of mental breakdown, the old person is often unable to take care of himself and cope with basic hygiene procedures.
At the same time, very often the judgment about the presence of "senile dementia" in a person of advanced age is made erroneously. Given the wide variety of indirect causes, it is difficult to make a clear diagnosis.
For example, poor diet or chronic sleep deprivation associated with illness, anxiety, depression, grief or fear can disrupt thought processes not only in older people, but also in younger people. Diseases of the heart or kidneys, which cause changes in the body's normal rhythm, metabolism, etc., can also affect the ability to think clearly. Confusion of consciousness, drowsiness can be caused drugs used to treat certain diseases. In each of these cases, with the correct treatment of a somatic illness or an emotional disorder, symptoms resembling the manifestation of senile dementia disappear in a person.
It should also be noted that the above data on the prevalence of dementia among elderly people can hardly be considered as absolutely accurate, since the authors analyzed the prevalence of dementia among people living in nursing homes. And we will not be mistaken if we make the assumption that the very conditions of life in such institutions cause a decrease in the intellectual activity of a person.
Old people living in nursing homes are "excluded" from the public Thus, among the causes of senile dementia, there are a lot of subjective, including psychological. For example, some older people are known to admit that they will lose their memory and will not be able to do what they have previously been able to do. They begin to expect in advance that they will become helpless and dependent on others and partially lose control over their own lives. Old people often imagine that their fate is completely left to chance or is in the hands of others. People who think this way do often lose competence and control over their circumstances. They have less self-esteem, show less stubbornness, and are less likely to try to achieve the results they want.
Alzheimer's disease
In fact, only about 50% of people diagnosed with "senile dementia" suffer Alzheimer's disease- a true disease associated with the destruction of brain cells. Another 30% suffered a series of micro-strokes that damaged the brain tissue.
In Alzheimer's disease, there is a progressive destruction of brain cells, especially cells of the cerebral cortex. There is speculation that Alzheimer's disease is the fourth leading cause of death in the elderly.
Moreover, an accurate diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease can only be made with autopsies(showdown): in this case histological analysis damaged areas of the brain allows you to detect the presence senile plaques and characteristic changes neurofibrill, which are soldered into thickened bundles and tangles. During a patient's lifetime, a working diagnosis is usually based on progressive memory impairment and disorientation.
Symptoms of the disease
The first symptoms of this disease are usually forgetfulness. In the beginning, a person forgets little things; as the disease progresses, he ceases to remember the places where he has been, the names and everyday affairs; and finally, even the events that have just happened are immediately forgotten. The progressive weakening of memory is accompanied by a loss of habitual skills. It becomes much more difficult to plan and carry out even the simplest daily activities; for example, it's hard to cook your own food if you can't find a refrigerator. At this point, it becomes clear that such a person cannot be left alone, because he can unintentionally harm himself. Finally, complete dementia sets in. The patient is unable to perform the simplest activities, such as dressing or eating. He does not recognize acquaintances, even a loving spouse who has courted him for many years may suddenly seem unfamiliar.
Alzheimer's disease- a dementia-causing disease in which there is a progressive destruction of brain cells, especially cortical cells.
Autopsy- pathoanatomical research method in modern medicine, which consists in opening the body of a deceased person.
Histological analysis- the method of modern medicine, used to study the features of the structure and development of tissues of the human body. Senile plaques - Compaction of blood vessels, causing a deterioration in blood supply, as a result of which the normal functioning of internal organs is disrupted. Neurofibrils - anatomical element of the structure of a nerve fiber.
Microstrokes
Another direct cause of dementia is microstrokes. In this case, the symptoms of dementia do not develop gradually, but suddenly or irregularly. This form of intellectual decline is very often referred to as multi-infarction dementia (MFA). A cerebral infarction is caused by a sharp narrowing, up to (sometimes temporary) obstruction of blood vessels, which interferes with the normal blood supply to a certain part of the brain. The result is necrosis and destruction of brain tissue.
The cause of micro-strokes and the resulting destruction of brain tissue is often atherosclerosis - the accumulation of cholesterol plaques on the inner walls of arteries. People with atherosclerosis, heart disease, hypertension, or diabetes are especially at risk of stroke.
Microstroke- acute disturbance of cerebral blood supply.
Multi-infarction dementia (MFA)- a decrease in the intellectual level, which occurs suddenly, in the form of a series of unexpected symptoms, caused by a stroke or a series of micro-strokes.
Summary
The main feature of this age is the aging process, which is a genetically programmed process accompanied by certain age-related changes, manifested primarily in the gradual weakening of the body's activity.
With aging, most sensory functions in humans, it deteriorates significantly. However, this does not happen for everyone. The nature and degree of weakening of sensory functions can vary greatly, which is primarily associated with individual characteristics and the activities that people are engaged in.
Those intelligent functions people who are highly dependent on the speed of operations, show a decline in late adulthood. In people who have reached this age, the reaction time increases, the processing of perceptual information slows down and the speed of cognitive processes decreases. Such sluggishness can be caused by changes in a person's personality characteristics.
The basis memory in old age there is a logical connection, and since logical memory is most closely connected with thinking, it can be assumed that thinking elderly people are highly developed.
Late adulthood has its own positive sides in relation to the development and transformation of the cognitive sphere. But not all persons who have reached a given age have the same dynamics of the cognitive sphere, in the process of which signs are formed wisdom.
The decline in cognitive activity in people who have reached late adulthood can be due to various reasons, direct or indirect.
Direct causes include: brain diseases such as Alzheimer's and cerebrovascular disease.
Indirect reasons for a decrease in human cognitive abilities are: general deterioration in health, low level of education, lack of motivation for cognitive activity.
Summing up the consideration of the peculiarities of intellectual characteristics in people of advanced age, it should be noted that the dynamics of the characteristics of the cognitive sphere in persons who have reached this age period depends largely on subjective factors, and primarily on the personality characteristics of a particular person.
Affective sphere
V society, old people are often perceived through the prism of stereotypes. Many consider the prospect of growing old to be so bleak that they prefer not to know anything about it at all. Nowadays, some young people think that old age is a state of semi-existence. Such stereotypes make it difficult to perceive older people differentially, as individuals with real differences between them. All this can lead to social attitudes and actions that discourage older people from taking an active part in collective work and leisure activities (CraigG., 2000).
Summary
The period of late adulthood is characterized by specific changes in the emotional sphere of a person: an uncontrolled increase in affective reactions (strong nervous excitement) with a tendency to causeless sadness, tearfulness. Most older adults tend to be eccentric, less empathetic, more self-absorbed, and less able to cope with difficult situations.
Older men become more passive and allow themselves to exhibit more feminine traits, while older women become more aggressive, practical, and overbearing.
In old age, the weakening of the affective sphere of a person deprives the colorfulness and brightness of new impressions, hence the attachment of older people to the past, the power of memories.
It should be noted that older people experience less anxiety at the thought of death than relatively young people; they think about death often, but with amazing calmness, fearing only that the process of dying will be long and painful.
Motivational sphere
Every person's lifestyle is unique and inimitable. To a large extent, this style is motivated by social motives, the need to find one's place in the life of society. Having passed most of his path, a person with a full measure of responsibility can evaluate his social achievements and successes, feel joy from fulfilled desires of youth or disappointment from unfulfilled hopes, understand what social role he played and continues to play in society.
Life style- a set of characteristics of a person's vital activity, which determine the unity of direction in life.
Motive(from lat. movere - set in motion, push) is a complex psychological formation that encourages conscious actions and deeds and serves as a basis (justification) for them.
Need- the experienced state of internal tension, which arises as a result of the reflection in the consciousness of need (need, desire for something) and stimulates mental activity associated with goal-setting.
Change of motives among pensioners
Usually a person tries to prepare for retirement. Thompson (1977) believes that this process can be conditionally divided into three parts, in each of which certain motives of human behavior are realized.
Dropping speed. This stage is characterized by the desire of a person to free himself from a number of work duties and the desire to narrow the sphere of responsibility in order to avoid a sudden sharp decline in activity upon retirement.
Advanced planning. A person tries to imagine his life in retirement, to outline some plan of those actions or activities that he will be engaged in during this period of time.
Life in anticipation of retirement. People are overwhelmed by the worries of completing work and obtaining retirement. They practically already live with those goals and
Every retired person experiences this event differently.
Social status- the role and position of a person in society.
Social interest - a purposeful search for various types of activities that give a person a sense of usefulness and involvement with life in society.
Sense-forming motive- the central life motive, reflecting what a person lives for. needs that will motivate them to take action during the remainder of their lives.
Some people perceive their retirement as a signal of the end of their usefulness, an irretrievable loss of the main meaning-making motive all life. Therefore, they try their best to stay at their workplace longer and work as long as they have enough strength. For such people, work is a striving for certain goals: from the usual maintenance of material well-being to preserving and increasing career achievements, as well as the possibility of long-term planning, which largely determines their desires and needs.
Lack of work leads a person to the realization of the weakening of his role in society, and sometimes to a feeling of uselessness and uselessness. In other words, the transition to the life of a pensioner serves as a signal for him “loss of power, helplessness and autonomy” (Craig G., 2000). In this case, the person focuses his efforts on maintaining social interest, expressed in a purposeful search for those activities that give him a sense of his usefulness and involvement with the life of society. This is participation in public actions and organizations, conducting public work and, of course, ordinary work activities.
According to opinion polls, the overwhelming majority of people approaching retirement age prefer to continue working at least part-time.
Old age
After 70 years most older people face illness and loss. The death of loved ones among friends and relatives narrows the circle of communication, and diseases limit the possibilities of spatial movement for many. A person travels less and less (visits friends and relatives), does not participate in formal organizations, and does not care about his social role.
The main and main come to the fore. need - maintaining physical health at an acceptable level. It is very important that at this age this need does not remain the only one and the person continues to maintain an interest in life, a system of values and attitudes, live by solving real pressing issues, and not by memories.
As shown by American psychologists, in 70-80-year-old people the desire to participate in public life really disappears, there is a concentration of interests on your the inner world... At the same time, interest in collecting, music, painting, that is, in what is called hobby, does not diminish.
In addition, people of the same age are characterized by a stable cognitive interest: they are ready and eager to continue learning, assimilating new knowledge, expanding their horizons.
The fact that until recently psychologists considered the main motive of their activity is also important in characterizing the motivational sphere of the elderly. the motive of "avoidance of failure", which ultimately led to passivity, apathy and unwillingness to participate in changing the existing situation.
However, recent studies have shown that in 70-80-year-old people with higher education Achievement motive expressed in the same way as in 20-year-old students. The differences are manifested in the orientation of motivation: the young are more focused on the external side of the activity, and the elderly - on the meaningful (Ilyin E. P., 2000).
For people of this age, a stable cognitive interest is characteristic.
They continue to take part in situations in which they can show their abilities and skills. They try to bear personal responsibility for the task entrusted, set realistic goals for themselves, adequately correlating their desires and capabilities. Seek to get feedback on how well they have acted in responding to that particular feedback. They continue to make plans for the future.
Planning ahead is a special factor that matters in terms of opposition personality involution. It allows a person to set new goals and encourages them to fulfill them. The more varied these goals, reflecting the breadth of interests of the elderly person, the more diverse and productive his life is, the more the person's desire to live further remains.
The range of goals that older people set depends on their area of interest and, therefore, can be the widest - for example, from the usual desire to wait for the appearance of great-grandchildren to the need to complete the creative work begun.
Creativity in general occupies a special place in the life of older people. Motivation for creative activity allows you to maintain high performance until a ripe old age. I. V. Pavlov created "Twenty Years of Experience" v 73 of the year, and "Lectures on the work of the cerebral hemispheres" - v 77 years. L. N. Tolstoy wrote the novel "Resurrection" v 71 year, and "Hadji Murad" - v 76 years. Michelangelo, Claude Monet, O. Renoir, Voltaire, B. Shaw, V. Goethe and many others were distinguished by high motivation for creative activity, which allowed them to continue to realize their potential in later years (Golovey L.A., 1996).
After 70 years among outstanding figures in science and art, one or another form is rarely found senile dementia, dementia. The desire to create is one of the leading factors in psychological and biological longevity.
Avoiding Failure Motive- the desire to avoid breakdown, failure, censure or punishment in a particular type of activity.
Achievement motive- persistently manifested human need to achieve success in different types activities.
Personality involution- “reverse” personality development associated with simplification, collapse or loss of basic socially significant personal characteristics. Dementia (acquired dementia) - irreversible disorganization of the personality, both intellectually and emotionally. It is often associated with old age and can be caused by many reasons - direct or indirect.
The motivational system that continues to develop dynamically is one of the foundations of the full functioning of the individual in old age. Old age begins when a person begins to live with his memories, that is, not the present or the future, but the past.
Late Old Age
Classification of sensations.
In life, we constantly notice a change in illumination, an increase or decrease in sound. These are the manifestations of the threshold of discrimination or differential threshold. Children are like parents. Sometimes we cannot distinguish the voice of the son from the voice of the father, at least in the first seconds of a telephone conversation. We find it difficult to tune the guitar: tuning one string to another, we do not hear the difference in sound. But our comrade with a conservatory education says that we still need to tighten it up by a quarter of a tone. Consequently, there is such a magnitude of the physical difference between the stimuli, more than which we distinguish them, and less than which we do not. This value is called the differential threshold, or the threshold of differential sensitivity
value. If you ask two or three people to halve a line about a meter long, we will see that each will have its own dividing point. You need to measure the results with a ruler. The one who divides more precisely has the best discrimination sensitivity. The ratio of a certain group of sensations to an increase in the magnitude of the initial stimulus is constant. This was established by the German physiologist E. Weber (1795-1878). Based on the teachings of Weber, the German physicist G. Fechner (1801 - 1887) showed experimentally that the increase in the intensity of sensation is not directly proportional to the increase in the strength of the stimulus, but more slowly. If the strength of the stimulus increases exponentially, the intensity of the sensation increases in arithmetic progression. This position is also formulated as follows: the intensity of sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the strength of the stimulus. It is called the Weber-Fechner law.
6. Classical laws of psychophysics.
Weber's law is one of the laws of the classical psychophysicists, asserting the constancy of the relative differential threshold(in the entire sensory range of the variable properties of the stimulus). Differential threshold is a kind of sensory threshold, which means smallest difference between 2 stimuli, above which the subject gives a reaction to them (usually in the form of a message about the appearance of a sensation of difference, difference between them) as to 2 different stimuli and below which the stimuli seem to him the same, indistinguishable. Thus, it is customary to express D. n. In the form differences between the values of variable and constant (background, standard) stimuli. Syn. difference threshold, discrimination threshold. The reciprocal of the D. p. Is called the difference sensitivity.
Stevens law variant basic psychophysical law, proposed by Amer. psychologist Stanley Stevens (1906-1973) and establishing a power-law rather than a logarithmic one (see. Fechner's law) relationship between strength Feel and the intensity of the stimuli.
Fechner's law basic psychophysical law , claiming that intensity of sensation is directly proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. Formulated G . Fechner in his seminal work "Elements of Psychophysics" (1860). Fechner's threshold theory constituent part psychophysicists, established G.Fechner. G. Fechner divided the whole process of reflection into 4 stages: irritation(physical process), excitation(physiological process), sensation(mental process), judgment(logical process). The threshold was considered as a point of transition from the 2nd to the 3rd stage - from arousal to sensation. However, not being able to quantitatively determine the process of excitation, Fechner, without denying the existence and importance of the physiological stage, excluded it from consideration and tried to establish a direct relationship between irritation and sensation. The basic psychophysical law is the functional dependence of the magnitude of sensation on the magnitude of the stimulus. Syn. psychophysical law, psychophysical function (should not be confused with psychometric curve, or function). There is no unified formula for O. p.z., But there are variants of it: logarithmic ( Fechner's law), power ( stevens law), generalized (Byrd, Zabrodina), etc. See also Psychophysics,Fechner G.T. (I. G. Skotnikova.)
Monocular vision (looking with one eye) determines the correct distance estimate within a very limited range. With binocular vision, the image of an object falls on disparate, i.e. on not quite corresponding points of the retina of the right and left eyes. These points are located at a slightly unequal distance from the central fovea of the retina (in one eye - to the right of the central fovea, in the other - to the left of it). When the image falls on identical, i.e. completely coinciding points of the retina, it is perceived as flat. If the disparity of the image of the object is too great, then the image begins to double. If the disparity does not exceed a certain value, depth perception arises.
For the perception of depth, muscular-motor sensations arising from the contraction and relaxation of the eye muscles are of considerable importance. The slow approach of the finger to the nose produces a noticeable proprioceptive sensation as a result of the tension in the muscles of the eye. These sensations come from the muscles that bring the axes of the eyes closer and apart, and from the muscle that changes the curvature of the lens.
With simultaneous vision with two eyes, the corresponding excitations from the right and left eyes are integrated into the cerebral part of the visual analyzer. There is an impression of the volume of the perceived object.
With the remoteness of objects, the relative position of light and shade, which depends on the location of objects, is of great importance in the perception of space. A person notices these features and learns, using chiaroscuro, to correctly determine the position of objects in space.
Attention as selection.
This approach focused on the study of selection mechanisms (selection of one object from several). An example of selection is the situation of a "cocktail party", when a person can arbitrarily select the voices of certain people from a variety of simultaneously sounding voices, recognize their speech, ignoring the voices of other people.
View functions
Representation, like any other cognitive process, performs a number of functions in the mental regulation of human behavior. Most researchers distinguish three main functions: signaling, regulating and tuning. The essence of the signaling function of representations is to reflect in each specific case not only the image of an object that previously influenced our senses, but also a variety of information about this object, which, under the influence of specific influences, is transformed into a system of signals that control behavior. The regulatory function of representations is closely related to their signaling function and consists in the selection of the necessary information about an object or phenomenon that previously influenced our sense organs. Moreover, this choice is made not abstractly, but taking into account the real conditions of the forthcoming activity. The next function of the views is tuning. It manifests itself in the orientation of human activity, depending on the nature of the impact environment... So, studying the physiological mechanisms of voluntary movements, I.P. Pavlov showed that the emerging motor image provides the adjustment of the locomotor apparatus for the performance of the corresponding movements. The adjustment function of representations provides a certain training effect of motional representations, which contributes to the formation of the algorithm of our activity. Thus, representations play a very significant role in the mental regulation of human activity.
37. The concept of thinking. Approaches to the study of thinking.
Thinking is an indirect and generalized reflection of reality, a type of mental activity, which consists in knowing the essence of things and phenomena, regular connections and relationships between them. Characteristics of thinking according to Myers: 1. Thinking cognitively. 2. Thinking is a directed process. 3. Thinking is the process of manipulating information, the result of which is the formation of representation.
The first feature of thinking is its mediated nature.
Thinking always relies on data from sensory experience - sensations, perceptions, representations - and on previously acquired theoretical knowledge. Indirect cognition is mediated cognition.
The second feature of thinking is its generalization. Generalization as cognition of the general and essential in objects of reality is possible because all the properties of these objects are related to each other. The general exists and manifests itself only in the particular, in the concrete. People express generalizations through speech, language.
38. Types of thinking; In psychology, it is customary to distinguish between types of thinking by content: Visual-Action Thinking lies in the fact that the solution of tasks is carried out by real transformation of the situation and the fulfillment of a motor act. So, at an early age, children show the ability to analyze and synthesize when they perceive objects at a certain moment and have the ability to operate with them.
Visual-figurative thinking is based on images of representations, transformation of the situation into a plan of images. Typical for poets, artists, architects, perfumers, fashion designers.
Feature abstract (verbal-logical) thinking is that it occurs on the basis of a concept, judgment, without using empirical data. R. Descartes expressed the following thought: "I think, so I exist." With these words, the scientist emphasizes the leading role in the mental activity of thinking, and precisely the verbal-logical one.
Visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking are considered as stages in the development of thinking in phylogeny and ontogenesis.
By the nature of the tasks: Theoretical thinking consists in the knowledge of laws, rules. It reflects the essential in phenomena, objects, connections between them at the level of patterns and trends. The products of theoretical thinking are, for example, the discovery of Mendeleev's Periodic Table, mathematical (philosophical) laws. Theoretical thinking is sometimes compared to empirical thinking. They differ in the nature of their generalizations. So, in theoretical thinking there is a generalization of abstract concepts, and in empirical - sensually given characteristics, highlighted by comparison.
The main task practical thinking is a physical transformation of reality. It can sometimes be more complicated than theoretical, because it often unfolds under extreme circumstances and in the absence of conditions for testing a hypothesis.
By the degree of awareness: Analytical thinking (logical)- this is a kind of thinking, unfolded in time, has clearly expressed stages, sufficiently realized by the subject. Based on concepts and forms of thinking.
Intuitive thinking on the contrary, it is curtailed in time, there is no division into stages, it was presented in consciousness. The process of manipulating an image with fuzzy characteristics.
In psychology, they also distinguish realistic thinking directed at the outside world and regulated by logical laws, as well as autistic thinking associated with the implementation of their own desires, intentions. Preschool children tend to self-centered thinking, its characteristic feature is the inability to put oneself in the position of others.
I. Kalmykova highlights productive (creative) and reproductive thinking according to the degree of novelty of the product that the subject of knowledge receives. The researcher believes that thinking as a process of generalized and indirect cognition of reality is always productive, i.e. aimed at acquiring new knowledge. However, in it, in a dialectical unity, the productive and reproductive components are intertwined.
Reproductive thinking is a type of thinking that provides a solution to a problem, relying on the reproduction of already known to man ways. The new task corresponds to the already known solution scheme. Despite this, reproductive thinking always requires the identification of a certain level of independence. In productive thinking, the intellectual abilities of a person, his creative potential are fully manifested. Creative possibilities are expressed in the rapid pace of assimilation of knowledge, in the breadth of their transfer to new conditions, in the independent operation of them.
By the nature of the perception of information and the type of representation (Bruner): From the basic: 1) objective thinking or practical mindset. 2) Imaginative thinking or artistic mindset. 3) Sign or humanitarian mindset. 4) Symbolic thinking or mathematical mindset. Six combined implementations by combining. ... By the nature of knowledge: 1) Algorithmic (sequential action). 2. Heuristic (search engine). By the method of putting forward and testing hypotheses (author Guildford): 1. Convergent (one correct answer. 2. Divergent (tasks that require different answers and they can all be correct). By the degree of development: 1. Intuitive. 2. Discursive (expanded) ...
| 39. Theories of thought Asocyanist theory. The first ideas about the universal laws of mental life were associated with the formation of connections (associations. The development of thinking is imagined as a process of accumulation of associations. Thinking was often compared with logic, conceptual and theoretical thinking was highlighted, which was often wrongly called logical. Intellectual abilities at that time were referred to as "worldview" , logical reasoning and reflection (self-knowledge). Pythagoras - the ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician, the founder of the brain theory of thinking. In the Middle Ages, the study of thinking was exclusively empirical and did not give anything new. At the beginning of the XX century, thinking was placed at the center of its interests by the Würzburg school psychology (O. Külpe and others), whose work was based on the phenomenology of E. Husserl and the rejection of associationism. In the experiments of this school, thinking was studied by methods of systematic introspection in order to decompose the process into main stages. ze M. Wertheimer and K. Dunker was engaged in research of productive thinking. Thinking in Gestalt psychology was understood as the restructuring of a problem situation with the help of insight. Within the framework of behaviorism, thinking is the process of forming connections between stimuli and responses. His merit is the consideration of practical thinking, namely, skills and abilities in solving problems. He contributed to the study of thinking and psychoanalysis, studying unconscious forms of thinking, the dependence of thinking on motives and needs. In Soviet psychology, the study of thinking is associated with the psychological theory of activity. Its representatives understand thinking as a lifetime ability to solve problems and transform reality. According to A. N. Leont'ev, internal (thinking) activity is not only a derivative of the external (behavior), but also has the same structure. In the internal mental activity, individual actions and operations can be distinguished. Internal and external elements of activity are interchangeable. We can conclude: thinking is formed in the process of activity. On the basis of the theory of activity, the pedagogical theories of P. Ya. Gal'perin, L. V. Zankov, V. V. Davydov were constructed. One of the newest is the information-cybernetic theory of thinking. Human thinking is modeled from the point of view of cybernetics and artificial intelligence. |
Types of imagination
By the degree of activity: passive, active By the degree of volitional efforts - intentional and unintentional
Active imagination - using it, a person by an effort of will, of his own free will, evokes the corresponding images in himself.
Active deliberate imagination: 1. Recreational imagination - when a person recreates representations of an object that would match the description. 2.Creative - when recreating, your own vision is added. 3. Dream - independent creation of new images. The difference between dreams: 1. The image of the desired is created in the dream. 2. A process that is not included in creative activity, since it does not give the final result. 3. The dream is directed towards the future. If a person is constantly dreaming, he is in the future. Not here and now. 4. Dreams sometimes come true.
Passive imagination - its images arise spontaneously, apart from the will and desire of a person. Passive Intentional Imagination or Daydreaming: Dreams are not associated with volitional efforts. They are like a dream. If a person is in dreams all the time, he does not live in the present. Dreams are not realized. Possible mental disorders
Unintentional Passive: 1. Sleep 2. Hallucinations - when non-existent objects are perceived, more often with mental disorders.
Productive imagination - in it, reality is consciously constructed by a person, and not just mechanically copied or recreated. But at the same time in the image she is still creatively transformed.
Reproductive imagination - the task is to reproduce reality as it is, and although there is also an element of fantasy, such imagination is more like perception or memory than creativity.
55. Functions and properties of imagination.
To represent reality in images, and to be able to use them, solving problems. This function of imagination is connected with thinking and is organically included in it.
regulation of emotional states. With the help of his imagination, a person is able to at least partially satisfy many needs, relieve the tension generated by them. This vital function is especially emphasized and developed in psychoanalysis.
arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes and human states, in particular perception, attention, memory, speech, emotions. With the help of skillfully evoked images, a person can pay attention to the necessary events. Through images, he gets the opportunity to control perception, memories, statements.
the formation of an internal plan of actions - the ability to carry them out in the mind, manipulating images.
planning and programming activities, drawing up such programs, assessing their correctness, the implementation process. Properties: 1. Creativity is an activity, the result of which is the creation of new material and spiritual values. 2. A dream is an emotional and concrete image of the desired future, characterized by poor knowledge of ways to achieve it and a passionate desire to translate it into reality. 3. Agglutination - the creation of new images based on the "gluing" of parts of existing images. 4. Accentuation - the creation of new images by emphasizing, highlighting certain features. 5. Hallucinations - unreal, fantastic images that arise in a person during illnesses that affect the state of his psyche.
The concept of sensation. Stages of sensation.
Sensation is a reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, as well as internal state the body by direct action on the senses. Sensation is the very first connection of a person with the surrounding reality. The process of sensation arises as a result of the effect on the sense organs of various material factors, which are called irritants, and the process of this effect itself is called irritation. Feelings arise from irritability. Irritability – common property of all living bodies to come into a state of activity under the influence of external influences (pre-psychic level), i.e. directly affecting the life of the organism. At an early stage of the development of living things, the simplest organisms (for example, a ciliate-shoe) do not need to distinguish between specific objects for their vital activity - irritability is sufficient. At a more complex stage, when a living person needs to determine any objects that he needs for life, and, consequently, the properties of this object as necessary for life, at this stage there is a transformation of irritability into sensitivity. Sensitivity- the ability to respond to neutral, indirect influences that do not affect the life of the body (an example with a frog that reacts to a rustle). The totality of feelings creates elementary mental processes, processes of mental reflection. Thus, sensation is a sensory reflection of objective reality. Each stimulus has its own characteristics, depending on which it can be perceived by certain senses. Thanks to sensations, a person distinguishes objects and phenomena by color, smell, taste, smoothness, temperature, size, volume and other characteristics. Sensations arise from direct contact with an object. So, for example, we learn about the taste of an apple when we taste it. Or, for example, we can hear the sound of a mosquito flying or feel its bite. In this example, sound and bite are sensory stimuli. At the same time, one should pay attention to the fact that the process of sensation reflects in consciousness only a sound or only a bite, without in any way connecting these sensations with each other, and, therefore, with a mosquito. This is the process of reflecting the individual properties of an object.
Nevertheless, sensations are the main source of information for a person. On the basis of this information, the entire human psyche is built - consciousness, thinking, activity. At this level, the subject directly interacts with the material world. Those., sensations are the basis of all human cognitive activity. Sensation is the simplest element of human consciousness and cognition, on which very complex cognitive processes are built: perception, representation, memory, thinking, imagination. Sensations, perceptions and representations are present in both humans and animals. Human sensations differ from those of animals, they are mediated by his knowledge. Expressing this or that property of things and phenomena, a person thereby realizes elementary generalizations of these properties. A person's feelings are associated with his knowledge and experience. The peculiarity of sensations is their immediacy and immediacy. Sensations arise immediately when the senses come in contact with objects of the material world. Sensations exist for a very short period of time, after which they are transformed into perceptions.
The need to have sensations is the basis for the mental and aesthetic development of a person. In their absence, sensory deprivation, information hunger sets in. Which leads to drowsiness, loss of interest in work, in people, irritability, irascibility, lethargy, apathy, melancholy, and later - sleep disorder and neurosis.
3. Properties of sensations.
The main properties of sensations include: quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization, absolute and relative thresholds of sensations. Quality is a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by a given sensation, distinguishes it from other types of sensations and varies within the limits of a given type of sensation. For example, taste sensations provide information on some chemical characteristics subject: sweet or sour, bitter or salty. The intensity of sensation is its quantitative characteristic and depends on the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor, which determines the degree of readiness of the receptor to perform its functions. For example, if you have a runny nose, the intensity of the odors you perceive may be distorted. The duration of the sensation is a time characteristic of the sensation that has arisen. Sensations have a so-called latent (latent) period. When an irritant is exposed to the sensory organ, the sensation does not arise immediately, but after a while.
Distinguish between positive and negative sequential images. A positive sequential image corresponds to the initial irritation, consists in maintaining a trace of irritation of the same quality as the acting stimulus. A negative sequential image consists in the emergence of a quality of sensation that is opposite to the quality of the influencing stimulus. For example, light-darkness, heaviness-lightness, heat-cold, etc. Sensations are characterized by spatial localization of the stimulus. The analysis carried out by receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space, i.e. we can tell where the light is coming from, where the heat is coming from, or which part of the body is affected by the stimulus.
However, the quantitative parameters of the main characteristics of sensations, in other words, the degree of sensitivity, are of no less importance. There are two types of sensitivity: absolute sensitivity and sensitivity to difference. Absolute sensitivity refers to the ability to sense weak stimuli, and sensitivity to difference refers to the ability to perceive subtle differences between stimuli.
Classification of sensations.
Sensation is a sensory reflection of objective reality. For the sensation to arise, it is necessary to use all the components of the analyzer. If you destroy any part of the analyzer, the occurrence of the corresponding sensations becomes impossible. Feelings are not passive processes at all - they are active or reflexive.
There are various approaches to classifying sensations. It has long been customary to distinguish five (by the number of sense organs) basic types of sensations: smell, taste, touch, sight and hearing. This classification of sensations according to the main modalities is correct, although not exhaustive. B.G. Ananiev spoke about eleven types of sensations. A.R. Luria thinks. That the classification of sensations can be carried out according to at least two basic principles - systematic and genetic (in other words, according to the principle of modality, on the one hand, and according to the principle of complexity or level of their construction, on the other. The systematic classification of sensations was proposed by the English physiologist C. He divided them into three main types: 1. Interoceptive - combine signals that reach us from the internal environment of the body (organic sensations; sensations of pain), 2. Proprioceptive transmit information about the position of the body in space and about the position of the musculoskeletal system, provide the regulation of our movements (feelings of balance; sensations of movement); 3. Exteroceptive sensations (distant-visual, auditory; olfactory; contact-gustatory, temperature, tactile, tactile) provide signals from the outside world and create the basis for our conscious behavior. , according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position the feeling between contact and distant sensations.
Proposed by the English neurologist H. Head - Genetic classification allows distinguishing two types of sensitivity: 1) protopathic (more primitive, affective, less differentiated and localized), which includes organic feelings (hunger, thirst, etc.); 2) epicritical (more subtly differentiating, objectified and rational), which includes the main types of human sensations. Epicritical sensitivity is genetically younger, and it controls protopathic sensitivity.
5. Psychophysics of sensations. Sensation thresholds.
The central question of psychophysics is the basic laws of the dependence of sensations on external stimuli. Its foundations were laid by E.G. Weber and G. Fechner.
The main question of psychophysics is the question of thresholds. There are absolute and differential thresholds of sensation or thresholds of sensation and thresholds of discrimination (differential). An irritant, acting on the analyzer, does not always evoke a feeling. The touch of a fluff to the body cannot be felt. If the stimulus is very strong, there may be a moment when the sensation ceases to arise. We do not hear sounds with a frequency of more than 20 thousand Hertz. An irritant that is too strong can cause pain. Consequently, sensations arise under the action of a stimulus of a certain intensity.
Psychological characteristics the relationship between the intensity of sensations and the strength of the stimulus expresses the concept of the threshold of sensitivity. There are such thresholds of sensitivity: lower absolute, upper absolute and discrimination threshold.
The smallest stimulus force that, acting on the analyzer, causes a barely noticeable sensation, is called lower absolute threshold of sensitivity... The lower threshold characterizes the sensitivity of the analyzer. There is a visual relationship between the absolute sensitivity and the threshold value: the lower the threshold, the higher the sensitivity, and vice versa. Our analyzers are very sensitive organs. They are excited by the very low energy of the corresponding stimuli. This applies primarily to hearing, sight and smell. The threshold of one human olfactory cell for the corresponding aromatic substances does not exceed 8 molecules. And to evoke taste sensations, you need at least 25,000 times more molecules than to create the olfactory sensation. The very strength of the stimulus, at which the sensation of a given type still exists, is called upper absolute sensitivity threshold... Sensitivity thresholds are individual for each person. This psychological pattern should be foreseen by the teacher, especially primary grades... Some children have decreased visual and auditory sensitivity. For them to see and hear well, it is necessary to create conditions for the best display of the teacher's language and the notes on the board. With the help of the senses, we can not only state the presence or absence of a particular stimulus, but also distinguish stimuli by their strength, intensity and quality.
Minimally increase the strength of the acting stimulus, which causes subtle differences between sensations, is called discrimination threshold.
(continuation of coursework)
Introduction.
As studies in pedagogy and psychology show, abilities, in contrast to knowledge, skills and abilities, are of lasting importance for the entire human life. And it is precisely childhood that is the syn- thetic period for their development.
But since it is in the early preschool age that the processes of sensation and perception are actively developing, the formation of the cognitive activity of children, then initially special attention should be paid to sensory abilities.
Sensations are a reflection of individual properties of objects that directly affect the senses (on the analyzers of vision, hearing, touch, smell, etc.).
Perception is a holistic reflection of an external material object or phenomenon that directly affects the senses. With the help of a visual analyzer, a person perceives such properties as shape, color, size; with the help of a taste analyzer, it determines whether it is sour or sweet, etc.
Representation is a sensory image of a phenomenon or object that is not perceived at the moment, but was previously perceived in one form or another. On the basis of such ideas, a person can describe the properties of an object or phenomenon that is absent at the moment.
One of the main abilities, the development of which should be given special attention in early preschool age, are mental.
TO mental capacity relate:
Sensory;
Intelligent;
Creative.
In this series of other abilities that ensure the success of the activity of not only a student, but also a musician, artist, writer, designer, sensory abilities occupy a leading place. They make it possible to capture and convey the subtlest nuances of form, color, sound and other external properties of objects and phenomena with special depth, clarity and accuracy.
Already in preschool age, children are faced with a variety of shapes, colors and other properties of objects, in particular toys and household items. They also get acquainted with works of art - painting, music, sculpture.
Every child, one way or another, perceives all this, but when such assimilation occurs spontaneously, it often turns out to be superficial and incomplete. Therefore, it is better that the process of developing sensory abilities is carried out purposefully.
So what is sensory ability.
Sensory, refers to the ability manifested in the field of perception of objects and their properties. They are formed early (at 3-4 years old) and form the foundation of the child's mental development.
The development of sensory abilities is based on the development by children of generally accepted samples of the external properties of objects. They are the basis for successful mastering of various school subjects.
Sensory development of a child is the development of his perception and the formation of ideas about the external properties of objects: their shape, color, size, position in space, as well as smell, taste, etc.
With the development of sensory abilities, the child has the opportunity to master aesthetic values in nature and society. Cognition begins with the perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, therefore sensory abilities constitute the foundation of the child's mental development.
In the development of sensory abilities, an important place is occupied by the assimilation of sensory standards.
Sensory standards are generally accepted samples of the external properties of objects. Seven colors of the spectrum and their shades in lightness and saturation are used as sensory standards of color, geometric figures are used as standards of form, values are metric measures, etc.
In three or four years - there is a transition from standards to the actual standards. The means of perception are no longer specific objects, but some samples of their properties, each with a well-defined name.
At this age, a child with properly organized development should already have formed the basic sensory standards. He is familiar with the basic colors (red, yellow, blue, green). If you put cards of different colors in front of the child, then at the request of an adult, he will choose three or four colors by name and two or three of them he will name himself. The kid is able to correctly choose the shapes of objects (circle, oval, square, rectangle, triangle) according to the sample, but he can also confuse the oval and the circle, the square and the rectangle. He knows the words more, less, and out of two objects (sticks, cubes, balls.) He successfully chooses the larger or the smaller.
The process of developing sensory abilities includes not only the assimilation of standards, but also actions to use them, which are called perceptual.
Perceptual actions belong to the group of indicative ones and therefore are always aimed at examining the object. In any activity, both indicative and performing components can be distinguished. When a child is faced with the task of pushing an object through a hole, he first examines the shape and dimensions of both of them, correlates them with each other, that is, he orients himself in the task, and only then proceeds to its practical implementation. In the younger preschool age, for the perception of any form, it is important to consistently trace the contour of the object, feel it with your hand, and follow it with your gaze. Such exploratory actions are perceptual. If the problem is solved with the help of force, without taking into account its conditions, then there are no perceptual actions.
In the process of developing perception, the formation of generalized methods of examining objects, that is, perceptual actions, is of particular importance. For example, All the actions described above are first performed in the external plane. Kids put objects on top of each other, circle them with their fingers. In the future, these actions are transferred to the inner plan, are performed in the "mind." So, playing geometric lotto, the child already determines the shape of objects "by eye".
In accordance with the normative indicators of mastering perceptual actions at 3 years old, the child masters individual modeling actions, creates combinations of elements that do not always correspond to the shape of a given figure. At the age of 4 - carries out perceptual modeling, which allows taking into account the shape, position, spatial arrangement of no more than two elements of the whole figure.
At the age of three to five years, qualitatively new properties of sensory processes are formed: sensation and perception. Child turning into different types activities (communication, play, design, drawing, etc., learns to more subtly distinguish individual signs and properties of objects. Phonemic hearing, color discrimination, visual acuity, perception of the shape of objects, etc. are improved. Perception is gradually isolated from objective action and begins to develop as an independent one, a purposeful process with its own specific tasks and methods.From manipulating an object, children move on to acquaintance with it on the basis of visual perception, while “the hand teaches the eye” (hand movements on the object determine eye movements) .Visual perception becomes one of the main processes of direct cognition of objects and phenomena The ability to consider objects is formed in early preschool age.
Considering new objects (plants, stones, etc., the child is not limited to simple visual acquaintance, but passes to tactile, auditory and olfactory perception - bends, stretches, scratches with nails, brings to the ear, shakes, sniffs the object, but often still does not can name them, designate them with a word.Active, diverse, expanded orientation of the child in relation to a new object stimulates the emergence of more accurate images.Actions of perception develop through the assimilation of a system of sensory standards (color spectrum, geometric shapes, etc.).
Speech acquires a leading role in the development of sensory processes in a preschooler. By naming the signs of objects, the child thereby distinguishes them. The enrichment of children's speech with words denoting the signs of objects, the relationship between them contributes to meaningful perception.
The child is oriented in the environment not only on the basis of perception.
At this age, the child begins to use symbolic representations of objects and events. Thanks to this, he becomes more free and independent of the field of perception and direct contacts with surrounding objects.
The child begins to think about what is missing at the moment in front of his eyes, to create fantastic ideas about objects that have never been encountered in his experience, he develops the ability to mentally reproduce hidden parts of an object based on its visible parts and operate with images of these hidden parts.
The symbolic function - a qualitatively new achievement in the mental development of a child of younger preschool age - marks the birth of an internal plan of thinking, which at this age still needs external supports (play, pictorial and other symbols).
Thus, a child of younger preschool age sees the world around him “with his eyes and hands”. The need to act with objects, play with them is irrepressible: the child wants to take everything in his hands, to try the object in action. At the heart of his cognitive activity are sensorimotor processes, the activity of all analyzers. In the process of developing perception, the formation of generalized methods of examining objects, the so-called perceptual actions, is of particular importance.
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Childhood psychology. Textbook. Edited by Corresponding Member of RAO A. A. Rean - SPb .: "Prime-EURO-
Development of sensations and perception
The development of a child's sensations is largely due to the development of his psychophysiological functions (sensory, mnemonic, verbal, tonic, etc.). If absolute sensitivity reaches a sufficiently high level of development already in the first year of a child's life, then at subsequent stages of growing up, the baby develops the ability to distinguish sensations, which is primarily reflected in the time of reaction to physical stimuli. So, starting from 3.5 years and ending with student age, there is a gradual and steady shortening of the reaction time of an individual to a stimulus (EI Boyko, 1964.) Moreover, the child's reaction time to a non-speech signal will be less than the reaction time to a speech one.
Absolute sensitivity is a psychophysical characteristic of an individual's sensitivity, which characterizes the individual's ability to feel extremely small in intensity effects of objects in the real world.
Psychophysiological functions - functions of the cerebral cortex that provide the relationship between physiological and mental processes.
Perceptual actions are structural units of the human perception process, which provide a conscious transformation of sensory information, leading to the construction of an image that is adequate to the objective world.
Simultaneously with the development of sensations in children aged 2 to 6 years, the development of perception continues. According to A. V. Zaporozhets, the development of perception enters a fundamentally new phase during the transition from early to preschool age. During this period, under the influence of play and constructive activity, children develop complex types of visual analysis and synthesis, including the ability to mentally dismember the perceived object into parts in the visual field, examining each of these parts separately and then combining them into one whole.
The development of perception can be viewed as a process of development and formation of perceptual actions. In the development of perceptual actions at the age of 3 to 6 years (i.e., in pre-preschool age), at least three main stages can be distinguished (Venger L.A., 1981).
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All About Kids - Sensory Development for Preschool Children
Play, construction, performance, elements of educational activity
Sensory standards
In the process of drawing, designing, making applications, laying out a mosaic. The repeated use of materials leads to the memorization and formation of sensory standards. Without systematic training, children form only 3-4 sensory standards of color, shape, and with targeted sensory education - for example, up to 28 in Japanese children. Difficulties with the assimilation of the value of the designation of the size of objects through the ratio to the size of another object
Expansion and deepening of children's ideas about the shape, color, size of objects - through the systematization of ideas. Color: the sequence of the arrangement of colors in the spectrum, division into warm and cold shades Shape: division into round and rectilinear, ideas about the difference between shapes from each other, their connection, transformation of 1 shape into another (if you divide the rectangle in half, you get 2 squares). Size: the ability to compare a large number of objects
Ways of perception
With the help of external tests, passing to internal tests, comparison of the properties of objects with the mastered standards by eye. Techniques for applying the sample to the object, tracing the contour of the sample and the object with your finger. When determining the color in the first stages, children use a colored pencil.
Comparing objects in size, children apply them to each other, trimming along one line. By the age of 5, preschoolers have mastered the internal methods of perception.
Children do not need external techniques - movements, hand tracing, etc. Use a visual comparison that becomes more accurate. Children move completely from using external patterns to using learned notions.
Inspection of objects
Children learn to sequentially inspect sample objects, highlight their parts, first determine the shape, size, color of the main part, then additional parts.Children cannot choose the desired detail from the finished building, they do not know how to consistently examine pictures. The main role belongs to the adult, guiding the process of examining objects.
Of great importance is the level of development of the speech of children, the ability to coherently convey the results of perception in words. Systematic training
Auditory perception
Speech hearing develops in the process of verbal communication, musical hearing - when listening to music and performing movements to music. At the beginning of preschool childhood, children perceive words and a musical melody as one, without highlighting individual sounds and their relationships in them. In the selection of speech sounds, pronunciation is of decisive importance, in the selection of the relationship of musical sounds - the movements of the hands and body.
The improvement of the auditory perception of speech and music occurs in the course of special work on the development of speech, literacy and music training. Reliance on the developing mental actions of the child, the ability to analyze the sound composition of a word, the rhythm and melody of musical works
Orientation in space. Already in early childhood, the child quite well masters the ability to take into account the spatial arrangement of objects.
However, he does not separate the directions of space and spatial relationships between objects from the objects themselves. Ideas about objects and their properties are formed earlier than ideas about space. And serve as their basis.
The initial ideas about the directions of space that a three-year-old child assimilates are associated with his own body. It is for him a point of reference, in relation to which the child alone can determine the direction.
For example, the child succeeds in determining the position of other parts of the body as right or left only in relation to the position of the right hand. Further development of orientation in space lies in the fact that children begin to distinguish relations between objects (one object after another, in front of another, to the left, to the right of it, between others). Only by the end of preschool age do children develop an orientation in space, independent of their own position, and the ability to change reference points.
Time orientation.
Orientation in time creates greater difficulties for a child than orientation in space. The child lives, his body reacts in a certain way to the passage of time: known time for 24 hours he wants to eat, sleep, etc., but the child himself does not perceive the time for a long time.
In a child, acquaintance with time begins only with the assimilation of the designations and measures of time developed by people. And these designations and measures are not so easy to assimilate, since they are of a relative nature (what was called "tomorrow" the day before is called "today", and the next day - "yesterday"). Learning about the time of day, children are primarily guided by their own actions: in the morning they wash, eat breakfast; during the day they play, study, dine; go to bed in the evening.
The concept of the seasons is acquired as you become familiar with the seasonal phenomena of nature. Particular difficulties are associated with the assimilation of ideas about what is "yesterday", "today", "tomorrow", this is due to the relativity of these concepts.
Ideas about large historical periods, the sequence of events in time, the length of life of people during preschool age usually remain insufficiently defined.
Perception of the drawing. The development of drawing in preschool age occurs in 3 directions:
- the attitude towards the picture as a reflection of reality is formed;
- the ability to correctly correlate a drawing with reality develops, to see exactly what is depicted on it;
- improving the interpretation of the picture, that is, understanding its content.
Development of understanding of the connection between drawing and reality. For the younger preschooler, the picture is more a repetition of reality, its special form, than an image. Children often assume that drawn people, objects can have the same properties as real ones.
For example, when a baby starts sniffing painted flowers, he covers the kid with his hand, trying to save him from the wolf, etc. Gradually, children learn which properties of objects can be depicted and which cannot.
On own experience they are convinced that they cannot act with painted objects as with real ones. Ceasing to confuse the properties of real objects with the properties of images, children do not immediately move on to understanding them as images.
Younger preschoolers treat the drawn object as an independent existing one, although it does not possess the features of the present. In the middle preschool age, children sufficiently assimilate the connection between drawing and reality.
However, since children do not know the rules and regulations of the fine arts, it is very difficult for them to perceive perspective (for example, a small Christmas tree is estimated by them as small). Only by the end of preschool age, children begin to more or less correctly evaluate the perspective image, but even during this period, the assessment is most often based on knowledge of the rules of such an image, mastered with the help of adults (“What is far away looks small in the picture, what is close - large "). The perception of the drawn objects is improved due to the knowledge of the rules of construction. Perception and thinking work as if in isolation from each other: the child sees that the object is small and understands that it is distant, as a result decides that it is both small and distant.
The interpretation of the drawing depends on the complexity of the composition. The younger preschooler cannot grasp and comprehend a composition that includes many figures and objects.
Guiding the development of perception in preschool children The tasks of sensory education for younger and middle preschoolers follow from the main directions of the development of perception and ideas about the external properties of objects. L. A. Venger, V. S. Mukhina indicate the following tasks: 1) familiarization with sensory standards; 2) teaching children how to use sensory standards; 3) training in the systematic examination of objects.
Junior and middle preschool age
Senior Preschool Age
Familiarization with sensory standards
Organization of the assimilation of ideas about the colors of the spectrum and their shades in terms of lightness, about geometric shapes and their changes in proportions, about the relationships of objects in terms of size and their individual dimensions. Familiarization with your own actions: self-production and changing colors (water coloring and mixing paints), geometric shapes, composing rows of objects of different sizes
Tasks requiring an understanding of the patterns underlying the selection and systematization of sensory standards - the participation of perception and thinking. For example, the grouping of different shades of the same color or varieties of shapes related to the same geometric shape, the arrangement of objects in a certain sequence depending on the gradual increase or decrease in lightness, size, etc.
Teaching children how to use sensory references
The gradual transition of children from using real samples to using learned ideas
Training in the systematic examination of objects
Tasks such as riddles, composing images of objects from parts, guiding the verbal description of objects
Tasks requiring detailed information from children verbal description items and their properties
Perception
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Perception in preschool age
Perception
Perception in preschool age, it loses its originally affective character: perceptual and emotional processes are differentiated. Perception becomes meaningful , purposeful, analyzing. It stands out arbitrary actions - observation, examination, search.
Speech exerts a significant influence on the development of perception at this time - the fact that the child begins to actively use the names of qualities, attributes, states of various objects and the relationship between them. By naming certain properties of objects and phenomena, he thereby selects these properties for himself; naming objects, he separates them from others, defining their states, connections or actions with them - he sees and understands the real relationship between them.
Specially organized perception contributes to a better understanding of phenomena. For example, a child adequately understands the content of a picture if adults provide appropriate explanations, help to consider the details in a certain sequence, or select a picture with a special composition that makes it easier to perceive.
At the same time, the figurative principle, which is very strong in this period, often prevents the child from drawing correct conclusions about what he is observing. In the experiments of J.
Bruner, described in Chapter 5, Section 1, many preschoolers correctly judge the preservation of the amount of water in glasses when water is poured from one glass to another behind a screen. But when the screen is removed and the children see the change in the water level, direct perception leads to an error - the Piaget phenomenon reappears. In general, in preschoolers, perception and thinking are so closely related that they talk about visual-figurative thinking , most characteristic of this age.
Kulagina I. Yu. Developmental psychology(Child development from birth to 17 years): Textbook. 3rd ed. - M .: Publishing house of URAO, 1997 .-- 176 p. S. 90-91
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Feeling and perception
Feelings and perception - section Psychology, Psychological commandments of the future teacher Formation of images of the surrounding world Is carried out on the basis of the Ability ...
The formation of images of the surrounding world is carried out on the basis of the ability to feel some of the simplest properties of objects and phenomena. A person receives all information about the world around him and about himself in the form of visual, auditory, motor, skin, gustatory, olfactory sensations and perceptions.
Any primary sensory disorders in delayed children mental development not found.
However, perception is not limited to the sum of individual sensations: the formation of a holistic image of objects is the result of a complex interaction of sensations (often sensations related to several sensory organs) and traces of past perceptions already existing in the cerebral cortex. It is this interaction that is impaired in children with mental retardation.
The development of perception includes two interrelated aspects (L.A. Wenger):
the formation and improvement of ideas about the varieties of properties of objects that perform the function of sensory standards;
the formation and improvement of the perceptual actions themselves, necessary for the use of standards in the analysis of the properties of real objects.
Children with mental retardation are primarily characterized by inadequacy, limitedness, and fragmentation of knowledge about the world around them.
This cannot be attributed only to the poverty of the child's experience (in fact, this very poverty of experience is largely due to the fact that the perception of children is inadequate and does not provide sufficient information): with CRD, such properties of perception as objectivity and structure are impaired. This is manifested in the fact that children find it difficult to recognize objects that are in an unusual perspective.
In addition, they find it difficult to recognize objects in outline or schematic images, especially if they are crossed out or overlapped. Children do not always recognize and often confuse letters similar in outline or their individual elements (N.
A. Nikashina, S. G. Shevchenko), often mistakenly perceive combinations of letters, etc. Polish psychologist H. Spionek directly notes that the lag in the development of visual perception is one of the reasons for the learning difficulties experienced by this category of children.
The integrity of perception also suffers. There is evidence that children with mental retardation experience difficulties when it is necessary to isolate individual elements from an object that is perceived as a whole.
These children find it difficult to complete the construction of a holistic image for any part of it (S.K.Sivolapov), the images of objects themselves in the representation of children are not accurate enough and the very number of images-representations they have is much less in comparison with normally developing children.
There is data indicating difficulties in building a holistic image and highlighting a figure (object) against the background. A holistic image of individual elements is formed slowly.
For example, if a normally developing child is shown three randomly located points on the screen, he will immediately involuntarily perceive them as the vertices of an imaginary triangle. With mental retardation, the formation of such a single image takes more time. These shortcomings of perception usually lead to the fact that the child does not notice something in the world around him, "does not see" much of what the teacher shows, demonstrating visual aids, pictures.
A significant lack of perception in these children is a significant slowdown in the processing of information coming through the senses. In the conditions of short-term perception of certain objects or phenomena, many details remain "uncovered", as if invisible. A child with mental retardation perceives in a certain time less amount of material than his normally developing peer.
The differences between children with mental retardation and their normally developing peers become more pronounced as the objects become more complex and the conditions of perception deteriorate.
The speed of perception in children with mental retardation becomes noticeably lower than normal for a given age, in fact, with any deviation from optimal conditions... Such an effect is exerted by low illumination, rotation of an object at an unusual angle, the presence of other similar objects in the neighborhood (with visual perception), a very frequent change of signals (objects), a combination, the simultaneous appearance of several signals (especially with auditory perception). These features were clearly identified in a study conducted by P.B.Shoshin (1984).
In children, not only individual properties of perception are impaired, but also perception as an activity that includes both a motivational-target component and an operational one, at the level of identification actions, equating to a standard, and perceptual modeling. Children with mental retardation are characterized by general passivity of perception (A. N. Tsymbalyuk), which manifests itself in attempts to replace a more difficult task with an easier one, in a desire to quickly "get rid of". This feature determines the presence of an extremely low level of analyzing observation in children, manifested in:
limited scope of analysis;
confusion of essential and non-essential features;
predominantly fixing attention on the visible differences of objects;
rare use of generalized terms and concepts.
Children with CRD lack purposefulness, orderliness in the examination of an object, no matter what channel of perception they use (visual, tactile or auditory). Search actions are characterized by chaos and impulsiveness. When performing tasks for the analysis of objects, children give a result that is less complete and lack of accuracy, omission of small details, and one-sidedness.
The degree of formation of spatial representations and their use in activity characterizes an important component of the child's development - the basis of the internal plan of activity. In their studies, B.G. Ananiev and E.F. Rybalko (1964) showed that the perception of space is a complex multifunctional process, including such components as the integrity of the visual field, visual acuity, and the eye.
The perception of space is impossible without the formation of communication systems between the visual, auditory and motor analyzers (A.R. Luria). Determining the correct position in space requires an appropriate level of development of analytical and synthetic thinking.
Orientation in space develops gradually, from the feeling of one's own body (dark muscular feeling and somatognosis in the early stages of ontogenesis, including right and left orientation - A. V. Semenovich, S. O. Umrikhin, 1998; V. N. Nikitin, 1998; etc. ) before developing a strategy for behavior in the physical and social world.
Children with CRD often have difficulties in right and left orientation, as well as unexpressed or cross laterality (Z. Mateichik, A. V. Semenovich).
ZM Dunaeva, while investigating the process of spatial perception in children with mental retardation, came to the conclusion that this category of children has grossly impaired orientation in space. This further negatively affects the formation of graphic skills, writing and reading. In the drawing of a person, which is considered as the most familiar object for the image in older preschoolers and younger schoolchildren, there are pronounced spatial disturbances in the position of the figure on a sheet of paper, pronounced disproportionality of individual parts of the body, incorrect connection of body parts to each other, lack of images of individual parts of the human figure, such as eyebrows, ears, clothing, fingers, etc. (Z. Trzhesoglava).
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Perception development in children
Elementary forms of perception begin to develop very early, in the first months of a child's life, as he forms conditioned reflexes to complex stimuli. Differentiation of complex stimuli in children in the first years of life is still very imperfect and differs significantly from the differentiation that occurs at an older age. This is due to the fact that in children, the processes of arousal prevail over inhibition.
At the same time, there is a great instability of both processes, their wide irradiation and, as a consequence, the inaccuracy and inconstancy of differentiation. Children of preschool and primary school age are characterized by low detailing of perceptions and their high emotional saturation.
A small child first of all distinguishes shiny and moving objects, unusual sounds and smells, that is, everything that causes his emotional and orientational reactions. Due to the lack of experience, he is still unable to distinguish the main and essential features of objects from the secondary ones. The conditioned reflex connections necessary for this arise only as one acts with objects in the process of playing and practicing.
Direct connection of perceptions with actions - characteristic feature and necessary condition development of perception in children. Seeing a new object, the child reaches for it, picks it up and, manipulating with it, gradually highlights its individual properties and sides.
Hence the enormous importance of the child's actions with objects for the formation of a correct and more and more detailed perception of them. Perception of the spatial properties of objects presents great difficulties for children. The connection of visual, kinesthetic and tactile sensations necessary for their perception is formed in children as they become practically acquainted with the size and shape of objects, operate with them, and the ability to distinguish distances develops when the child begins to walk independently and move more or less significant distances.
Due to insufficient practice, visual-motor connections in children younger age are still imperfect. Hence the inaccuracy of their linear and depth eyes.
If an adult estimates the length of the lines with an accuracy of 1/10 of the length, then children 2-4 years old - with an accuracy not exceeding 1/20 of the length. Children especially often make mistakes in the size of distant objects, and the perception of perspective in the drawing is achieved only by the end of preschool age and often requires special exercises.
Abstract geometric shapes (circle, square, triangle) are associated in the perception of preschoolers with the shape of certain objects (children often call a triangle a "house", a circle - a "wheel", etc.); and only later, when they learn the name of the geometric figures, they have a general idea of this form and the correct distinction of it, regardless of other features of objects.
The perception of time is even more difficult for a child. In children 2-2.5 years old, it is still quite vague, undifferentiated. The correct use by children of such concepts as "yesterday", "tomorrow", "earlier", "later", etc., in most cases, is noted only for about 4 years, the duration of certain periods of time (hour, half an hour, 5-10 minutes ) are often confused by six- to seven-year-olds.
Significant shifts in the development of perception in a child occur under the influence of verbal communication with adults... Adults acquaint the child with the surrounding objects, help to highlight their most important and characteristic sides, teach ways of acting with them, answer numerous questions about these objects.
Learning the names of objects and their individual parts, children learn to generalize and differentiate objects according to the most important features. To a large extent, children's perceptions depend on their previous experience. The more often a child encounters various objects, the more he learns about them, the more fully he can perceive and in the future more correctly reflect the connections and relationships between them.
Incompleteness childhood experience, in particular, it explains that when perceiving little-known things or drawings, young children often limit themselves to listing and describing individual objects or their parts and find it difficult to explain their meaning as a whole.
Psychologists Binet, Stern and others, who noticed this fact, drew from it the wrong conclusion about the existence of strict standards of age-related characteristics of perception, regardless of the content of what is perceived.
Such is, for example, Binet's scheme, which establishes three age levels of perception of pictures by children: at the age of 3 to 7 years - the stage of listing individual objects, at the age of 7 to 12 years - the stage of description, and from 12 years old - the stage of explanation, or interpretation.
The artificiality of such schemes is easily revealed if children are presented with pictures with close, familiar content. In this case, even three-year-old children are not limited to a simple listing of objects, but give a more or less coherent story, albeit with an admixture of invented, fantastic explanations (data from S. Rubinstein and Hovsepyan).
Thus, the qualitative uniqueness of the content of children's perception is caused, first of all, by the limitations of children's experience, the inadequacy of the systems of temporal connections formed in the past experience, and the inaccuracy of previously developed differentiations.
The regularities of the formation of conditioned reflex connections are also explained close connection of children's perception with the actions and movements of the child.
The first years of children's life are the period of development of the main inter-analytic conditioned-reflex connections (for example, visual-motor, visual-tactile, etc.), the formation of which requires direct movements and actions with objects.
At this age, children, examining objects, at the same time feel and touch them. In the future, when these connections become stronger and more differentiated, direct actions with objects are less necessary, and visual perception becomes a relatively independent process in which the motor component participates in a latent form (mainly eye movements are performed).
Both of these stages are always noted, but it is impossible to associate them with a strictly defined age, since they depend on the living conditions, upbringing and education of the child.
Play is important for the development of perception and observation in preschool and primary school age. In play, children differentiate the various properties of objects - their color, shape, size, weight, and since all this is associated with the actions and movements of children, thereby favorable conditions are created in play for the interaction of various analyzers and for creating a multilateral idea of objects.
Drawing and modeling are of great importance for the development of perception and observation, during which children learn to correctly convey the contours of objects, distinguish shades of colors, etc. In the process of playing, drawing and performing other tasks, children learn to independently set themselves the task of observation. Thus, already in older preschool age, perception becomes more organized and controlled.
At school age, perception becomes even more complex, versatile and purposeful. The school, with its various educational and extracurricular activities, reveals to students a complex picture of natural and social phenomena, forms their perception and observation.
The development of perception at school age is especially facilitated by the visualization of teaching.... Systematic practical and laboratory classes, extensive use of visual aids, excursions, familiarization with different types of production activities - all this provides a huge material for the development of perception and observation of students.
The development of perceptions in schoolchildren requires significant attention and guidance from teachers and educators. This is especially true for primary school students, who, due to a lack of life experience, often cannot highlight the main and essential in the observed phenomena, find it difficult to describe them, miss important details, are distracted by random, insignificant details.
The task of the teacher is to carefully prepare students for the perception of the objects being studied, to provide the necessary information about them, which would facilitate and direct the students' perception in the direction of highlighting the most important features of the subjects.
Demonstration of visual aids (pictures, diagrams, diagrams, etc.), conducting laboratory work and excursions only reach the goal when students are clearly aware of the task of observation. Without this, they can look at objects and nevertheless not see the most important thing.
In one of the lessons in the first grade, the teacher held a conversation about squirrels. She hung a picture of two squirrels and held a conversation about their lifestyle, however, without saying anything about their appearance.
Then, having removed the picture, she invited the students to finish drawing on the cardboard stencil the missing details of the squirrel image and color in the drawing. Quite unexpectedly, this turned out to be a difficult task for the children. Questions rained down: what color of the squirrel, what kind of eyes it has, whether it has a mustache, whether it has eyebrows, etc. Thus, although the children looked at the picture, they noticed very little on it (from M. Skatkin's observations).
In the process of schoolwork, in order to develop perception, careful comparisons of objects, their individual sides, an indication of the similarities and differences between them are necessary. The independent actions of students with objects and the participation of various analyzers (in particular, not only sight and hearing, but also touch) are of paramount importance.
Active, purposeful actions with subjects, consistency and systematicity in the accumulation of facts, their careful analysis and generalization - these are the basic requirements for observation, which must be strictly observed by students and teachers.
One should especially care about the correctness of the observations. At the beginning, schoolchildren's observations may not be detailed enough (which is natural when first acquainting themselves with an object or phenomenon), but observations should never be replaced by distortion of facts and their arbitrary interpretation.
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Features of the development of sensations. Man is born with ready-made senses and a ready-made capacity for sensations. However, over the course of his life, his analyzers have improved, his sensations become more accurate. A prerequisite for the development of a person's sensations is his active and varied practical activity. Of no less importance are special exercises of sensations when raising a child in kindergarten and at school, aimed at increasing the absolute and distinctive sensitivity of vision, hearing, touch, etc.
Sensory education, as a purposeful development of sensations, should be started as early as possible. The first concern of an adult is to check and further ensure the normal functioning of the child's sense organs. The second duty is to organize a varied and active child's activity (children must be taught to draw, sculpt, construct, look at pictures and listen to music, sing, dance, observe the surrounding nature). Of great importance in sensory education are the fulfillment of various work tasks available to the age, classes on the development of speech, collective outdoor games, and physical exercises. The child should be interested in the specified activities.
The development of sensations in children goes in the following directions. The sensations are becoming more and more differentiated. A four-year-old preschooler, for example, finds it difficult to distinguish between the smell and taste of an orange; both of these sensations are merged into one whole. In the future, the child clearly separates from each other different types of sensations received from one object. With age, both the number of properties that a child can distinguish in an object and the number of objects that he learns through sensations increase. With the development and education of the child, his sensations become more accurate and "subtle". The child learns to distinguish not only the basic chromatic colors, but also the shades between them, not only musical tones, but also semitones, etc. The child's assimilation of the language makes his sensations conscious. Calling in words the properties of objects distinguished by hearing, sight, touch and other types of sensations, the child remembers them better and gets the opportunity to consciously compare homogeneous properties (for example, mastering musical terminology helps a child compare musical sounds in terms of volume, pitch , timbre, etc.)
Sensations are further developed in children of school age: visual acuity, color sensation, subtlety of joint-muscular sensations, auditory, skin and other sensations. The degree of development of certain sensations in children is directly dependent on the activity of the student, in the process of which they are being improved.